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Review Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2637-8892/326
*Corresponding Author: Theofilidis Antonis, Cognitive Psychologist Aristotel University.
Citation: Theofilidis Antonis, (2025), Cognitive Science - the Question of Knowledge Representation and the Propositional Mental Representations, Psychology and Mental Health Care, 9(3): DOI:10.31579/2637-8892/326
Copyright: © 2025, Theofilidis Antonis. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 03 March 2025 | Accepted: 17 March 2025 | Published: 28 March 2025
Keywords: mental representations; cognitive psychology; propositional mental representations
In cognitive psychology, the term representation refers to the way information is mentally represented through coded symbols (Eysenk & Keane, 2000). It is a construction of the mind that results from the processing of external stimuli and is of primary importance in problem solving, communication and education. Piaget introduced the concept of representation in 1936 to explain the child's ability to control the invisible movements of an object. The child must have a mental representation of the object, which guarantees its permanence in space and time (Mounoud & Vinter, 1985). Starting, as psychology has historically done, from an empiricist model that sees the mental as arising from representations of the real through the senses, we can identify an important point for research into the types of representations, even if this is defined as a subject mainly for external representations.
If we accept that the mental consists of representations, then it is natural to ask the question “what kinds of representations?” The Cognitive Revolution told us that we know what the mental is: they are internal representations, analogous to symbolic representations (Haugeland, 1985). But we need to better understand how different elements are involved in the mental process that leads to the creation of representations (Moser, et. al.,2015).
The need for psychology to deal with the mental.
A major revolution in linguistics was made by Chomsky (1956) who recognized in language, not primarily the communicative character, but the mathematical/logical structure in the representation of information. The opposition to behaviorism is completed with Chomsky’s (1956) attack on Verbal Behavior proposed as an explanation of language by Skinner. On the one hand, Chomsky tells us that behaviorism is unable to explain language, therefore it is unable to explain thought, to the extent that thought is based on language, therefore it is unable to explain behavior to the extent that behavior is based on thought (Kargopoulos, 2008). On the other hand, the analysis of the relationships between the inflow of meager linguistic experiences, and the outflow of a complete system of linguistic competence, shows us language as a window to scientifically explore the mind, and to connect it with the brain. he above supported the need for psychology to deal with the mental, despite the behavioral prohibition. However, what allowed the scientific turn to be completed in a research program (Lakatos, 1970), was the invention by Alan Turing (1951a) of Turing machines and in particular the Universal Machine which was able to imitate any process that was sufficiently specified to be recorded as a computer program consisting of algorithmically specified procedures. The reason that the computer managed to bring the mind back into scientific study was precisely that it showed us that the problem of psychophysical causality could be solved. The mind is not some mysterious entity, but a large set of diverse activities performed by the brain, so ‘studying the mind’ means analyzing, recomposing and thus simulating its functions. In this way I have a complete way to study the mind with scientific rigor (Stilling, et al, 1987; Thagard, 2005). The result of these was the Cognitive Revolution in psychology which, in defiance of behavioral theory, brought the study of the mental back to the center of psychology. A trend that from the beginning began to extend even into application in clinical practice, because every manifestation of inner life has the relevant cognitive content, and therefore emotion is recognized as a carrier of cognitive content and, consequently, any emotional disorder can be considered a cognitive error and corrected, and not just 'unlearned' with behavioral methods. From an epistemological point of view, the greatest achievement of the Cognitive Revolution must be considered to be the genesis of Cognitive Science, the interdisciplinary effort to analyze intelligence, because this created a general program of new research with clear criteria for success and recognized areas of specialization. Artificial Intelligence occupied a central position in the first phase of Cognitive Science because it provided the basic ontology and the accompanying methodology. If mental processes are considered as algorithmic routines executed by the biological computer called the ‘brain’, then the task of Cognitive Science is clear. Cognitive scientists must record all mental abilities and analyze each one into individual processes. These individual processes must be analyzed into other ‘more individual’ ones and so on until they arrive at the processes that can be executed mechanically. Starting from these, they then recompose (by ‘reverse engineering’) the processes with a final product that can be tested with absolute certainty: the simulation of the corresponding human ability by the computer. If the machine is able to do what our biological computer (brain) does, then the analysis of this particular mental capacity has succeeded, even if we are not sure that the brain does the same activity in the same way (Stilling, et al, 1987).From a theoretical point of view, the important thing is that, despite the differences we recognize between a computer and a brain, there are at least two fundamental similarities in which there is no way that there is no correspondence. A computer is a mechanism that executes instructions (i.e., any series of instructions can be executed), and it is able to do this because it manipulates symbolic representations. From these two fundamental properties of the computer, two corresponding properties for the mind arise: Since the computer is an executor of instructions, then all mental activities must be analyzed into a series of algorithmic instructions, which are executed ‘serially’ (i.e., one action at a time with a strict time order between actions). But given that to do so, the computer must manipulate symbolic representations, it follows that a significant part of the nature of the mind is captured by the concept of representation. Finally, the Cognitive Revolution told us that we know what the mind is: it is internal representations, analogous to symbolic representations (Haugeland, 1985). But we need to better understand how different elements are involved in the mental process that leads to the creation of representations (Moser, et. al.,2015).
The issue of mental representations.
He idea that the mind can be considered as consisting of internal representations is not a new idea in the history of ideas. What is new is the model of the computer that is strictly mechanical, but by manipulating symbolic representations it is able to perform in principle any calculation, and then can be extended to any activity that can be analyzed into algorithmic rules. Given that computers without representations do not exist, representations are and will remain at the center of cognitive science research, which is also concerned with the type of representations that the mind manipulates in each mental task. Cognitive science is interested not only in the ontological depth of the concept of representation (whether it is an object, property, or relation and how many parts the relation consists of) but also in the breadth of the application of representations (how many and what types of representations there are and how they are combined with each other in mental tasks). The very concept of representation is problematic. In principle, there is no objection to assuming that events and objects in the world correspond to activities in the brain of which they are considered as representations. So far we have two elements ‘what happens in the world’, which is subject to the laws of the natural sciences, and ‘what happens simultaneously or almost simultaneously in the brain’ which is subject to the laws of the biological sciences, and therefore, ultimately, again of the natural sciences. When we add to the above naturalistic relationship a third factor, the mental one which is subject to the laws of semantics, we have a complicated relationship between A, B, C:
A. Represented (object, quality, relation, property, event in the world)
B. Representation I (Brain event corresponding to the represented)
C. Representation II (Mental event corresponding to the two above)
In the whole concept of representation, there is, therefore, in principle the difficulty regarding the question of which of the three possible relations (represented -to- representation I, represented -to- representation II, representation I -to- representation II) actually corresponds to the representation that cognitive science theoretically requires. Of the three relations in the preceding parenthesis, the first can be considered as a given: the basic function of the brain is the manipulation of information from the environment, but in order for this manipulation to take place, it is necessary for there to be some process in the brain that corresponds (or is equivalent) to the event in the environment, and this equivalent can of course be considered as a ‘representation’. The reason why we consider it as a ‘representation’ can be attributed to the knowledge we have about the anatomy and physiology of vision. What is visible in the environment is initially recorded as an inverted image (a type of representation) in the retina, which is already part of the brain, but in turn causes a series of changes in the geniculate body and the occipital lobe, which are followed by other changes in various parts of the brain. This part of the process can be considered as scientifically documented in its entirety. If we limit the concept of representation to this, there is no problem, but why call it ‘representation’ and not ‘covariation’, or ‘causal chain process’, or ‘final causation’? The term ‘representation’ refers mainly to entities with a semantic dimension that ‘refer’ to other entities. A description of the interior of an office, as well as a photograph of the interior of the same office, are representations of the office that must be governed by rules in order to be understood. The rules to be followed in the case of verbal description require first syntactic rules and conventions and then semantic and pragmatic rules. Photography requires a different kind of rules (such as being held at a certain distance, being pointed upwards, identifying the point from which it was photographed, usually from the eye level of an average person standing and surveying the scene).Of the two types of representation, the virtual (the photograph) can be considered as the more naturalistically primary, we have seen it on the retina of living beings, but we can imagine that even those that do not have language, such as animals and babies, have it. However, the system that cognitive science took as an example, that of the computer, posits the linguistic system as the most primary given that a computer is basically a syntactic machine: it manipulates symbols (0, 1) based on their syntactic form. For the rest (semantics, pragmatics) to the extent that they depend on the syntax, or to the extent that they have the same structure as the syntax, we can hope that when they are fully deciphered, they will be simulated. We already see here the basis for the controversy: are thoughts words that, connected in sentences, refer to situations or images that resemble the situations to which they refer? The above difficulties have led some researchers to abandon the concept of representation. According to Rodney Brooks (2002), the concept of representation does not solve the problems of cognition, but rather doubles them. Before we accept this and turn to the so-called ‘embodied intelligence’ (Gallagher & Karin, 2005. Gibbs, 2006. Pfeifer & Bongard 2007. Schwoebel & Coslett 2005) we must exhaust the classical line in the cognitive approach that advocates that the concept of representation is the basic element of explanation of the mental. To the extent that representations can be the object of systematic processing, the path to considering them as the basic mental explanans of the mental explanandum remains open. The difficulties are not limited to the ontological question of the relations of real-cerebral-mental, but often revolve around the systematic ambiguity that follows the term ‘representation’, called ‘process - product ambiguity’: The same word ‘representation’ can refer to the process of ‘representing’ or to the product/result, that is, to the symbol it represents. For example, in the sentence “Da Vinci’s representation of the Last Supper depicts 13 faces” the term ‘representation’ refers to the product of a process. On the contrary, in the sentence “The representation that a camera makes is an inverted impression of a three-dimensional scene on two-dimensional photographic film” the term ‘representation’ refers to the process by which we end up (or even not end up) with a product. In the symbolic external representations that we encounter in language and art, the process usually results in a product, precisely because the product is made to be used by others who will be led in their own (representational) way to the represented. However, it is obvious that the process is the surest and perhaps the only legitimate concern in Cognitive Science, given that there is serious doubt about the final product: Is it simply brain activation of neuronal cells or is it the combination of concepts involved in a conscious thought? It is certainly not an image, since there are no eyes in the brain to see it, nor a sentence to hear or read it for the same reason. The representations about which we know most are the external representations, which are generally products of the processes of representation. For these we know that although they are objects, calling them “representations” suggests that they are at least four-way relationships (Kargopoulos, 2008). Specifically: A (symbol) represents B (symbolized) according to convention C in symbolic situation D (which includes the symbolizer and the possible recipients). Thus, for example, the abstract drawing of a fish (A) symbolizes Christ (B) according to the secret acronym code “Jesus Christ of God Son of God Savior” (C) so that a Christian can secretly declare his identity to another Christian (D) and hide it from another non-Christian (D).It is obvious that we have a wealth of knowledge about external representations, given that a science (Linguistics) and a group of studies (humanities) deal exclusively with this wealth of symbols, texts, works and interpretations. On the other hand, however, about internal (mental and/or cerebral) representations, our knowledge is strictly limited. The barking A of a dog in the environment is “represented” (corresponds as a counterpart) to some cerebral change E (which occurs – as neuroimaging shows – even when the person is sleeping) but, under the condition of consciousness, it is represented as recognition of the presence of a dog (concept Z) in the environment by the person, if the person specifically pays attention to this sound and distinguishes it from other sounds in the environment. The relationship seems to be at least three-fold: real – cerebral – mental, Things get more difficult when we recognize that external representations are ontologically parasitic on internal ones, since they presuppose internal representations in the user of the symbol and in those to whom it is addressed. Consequently, using external representations as a guide to explain internal representations is an explanatory prior that leads dangerously close to explanatory circularity. This position is in full agreement with Searle’s distinction between real intentionality, which characterizes internal mental representations, and as if intentionality, which characterizes external representations (Searle, 1992, 1998). The problem, however, becomes more complicated when we recognize that even the above position on the parasitic nature of externals on internal representations is precarious, when we ask ourselves whether language belongs to internal or external representations. Whether as sounds in space, or as signs on paper, on a blackboard, on a wall, or even on the ground, language is certainly external and relies on the internal representations of the writer or speaker and the readers or listeners, in order to be distinguished from other accidental signs or sounds. However, language is at the same time a ‘natural’ system of symbols despite the conventions that govern the diversity of spoken languages. Cognitive science was early involved in this controversy that it inherited from philosophy. Whether there is a language of thought that is universal but not identical with the spoken language of the thinker is an unconfirmed hypothesis. Unanswered questions remain whether we can think without a spoken language (Wittgenstein, 1953), whether different languages lead to different kinds of thinking (Whorf-Shapere Hypothesis) (Whorf, 1966), and whether language learning itself presupposes thinking (Fodor, 1981, 1998). Close to these questions are the basic questions of whether the human mind uses only propositional representations or whether it also uses figurative representations that are not parasitic on the propositional knowledge we have of these images. Despite all these unanswered questions, however, starting, as psychology historically did, from an empiricist model that sees the mental as originating from representations of the real through the senses, we can identify an important point for research into the kinds of representations, even if this is defined as a topic mainly for external representations. If we accept that the mind consists of representations, then it is natural to ask the question “what kind of representations?”
Types of representations
Mental representation is the way in which the external world of objects and events is depicted in the human mind. By abusing this metaphor, we say that something that exists or happens outside is represented within the mind (Denis, 1989). In cognitive psychology, the term representation refers to the way of mentally representing information through coded symbols (Eysenk & Keane, 2000). It refers to a construction of the mind that is the result of the processing of external stimuli and is of primary importance in problem solving, communication and education. Piaget introduced the concept of representation in 1936 to explain the child’s ability to control the invisible movements of an object. The child must have a mental representation of the object, which guarantees its permanence in space and time (Mounoud & Vinter, 1985). The symbolic nature of the representation concerns the highest stage of cognitive development. Up to the age of 2, the representation of the world is directly linked to the senses and motor action, the child represents the world according to the way in which he himself acts in it. This type of representation is called active representation, while the storage of information in the form of visual images is called figurative representation (Bruner, 1957). The figurative representation of childhood is partly symbolic in nature (use of language and numbers) but children generally use the figurative type, while adults use the symbolic type of representation (Bruner, 1957). Knowledge from the external world leads to the formation of mental representations of things, ideas and events. The representations can be figurative (a dog, a tree, etc.) or verbal (for linguistic information - e.g., graphic codes). Bruner (1957) mentions three ways of representation:
Active representation: Which depends on human activities and the functioning of the senses (from birth to the age of 2 years), and includes physical skills such as: standing, sitting, moving, walking, tying a knot, swimming, and riding a bicycle. That is, it includes representations of events through movement and corresponds, essentially, to “knowing how to do something”.
Pictorial representation:
This (from two years to six/seven years), depends on images (visual, auditory, gustatory, tactile, olfactory) that ‘look’ like the object. However, they are personal images of the individual, images of his own, which differ from person to person.
Symbolic representation:
This depends on symbols (from the age of seven onwards), where the connection between the symbol and the object it represents is arbitrary, e.g., the word "a book". Symbols can represent people's abstract thinking through their ability to formulate propositions about the world using symbols instead of tangible objects. This is the case in Logic, Physics and Mathematics.
Bruner (1957) argued that once we have acquired all three modes of representation we can use any mode that is appropriate for what we want to represent.
During children’s cognitive development, the above types obviously become more complex as toddlers learn to reproduce the barks of dogs before learning to say the word ‘dog’ while they recognize the dogs they encounter on their walks and willingly imitate the barks when their parents ask “how is the dog doing?”.
The above views on representation preceded cognitive science. According to newer approaches, according to Eysenck and Keane (2000), representations are distinguished into: a) External representations such as images, maps, diagrams and all verbal descriptions, oral or written, and
b) Internal or mental representations which mainly concern the way information is organized in the mind.
External representations are either of a figurative or verbal form, while internal representations are symbolic. Symbolic internal representations are divided into analogical and propositional. An example of an analogical representation is the visual image of a stimulus which is imprinted in our cognitive system. While propositional representation has an abstract form and concerns the basic concepts of the content of an information, i.e. concepts that constitute the core of a state.
Mental analogical representations
As we explained earlier, while we know a lot about external representations, what we know about internal ones is the result of conjecture and theoretical arguments with frequent recourse to this highly ambiguous field of evidence, that of introspection. For this reason, the distinction between analogical and propositional representations will be made with references to the corresponding distinction of external representations, that is, to the distinction between virtual and verbal representations, because the two different external representations, virtual and verbal, are cases of analogical and digital representations respectively.
At the heart of scientific research is the question of whether the mind contains propositional (digital) representations only, or whether it also contains virtual (analog) ones. Analogical representation is the equivalent of the virtual-external representation, while propositional (not sentential) representation approaches the verbal, because the logical proposition is of abstract form and independent of any specific sensory characteristic, that is, sounds of oral speech, the ink of written communication, or the gestures of the sign language of the deaf. The basic form of analogical representations are mental images, which either come from a sensory stimulation immediately after it ceases, or are creations of the mind, i.e. of our imagination. Analogical representations are elements whose experience is analogous to that of the perception of the relevant object in the real world, e.g. I see a tree, this experience is translated into a representation that allows me to store some information about this tree (Kosslyn, 1990). Using analogical representation means that I bring to mind an image of the tree as I had seen it. Based on this image, I compare, process the relevant information and thus answer. To the question whether the green of the tree was more or less dark than the green of another tree that I see, in order to answer, I try to imagine the tree as I had seen it and thus I try to "see" how much its color differs from the color of the tree that I have in front of me. An analogical representation can be transformed or changed in the same way that the corresponding image or the corresponding object would change, e.g. I have a book in front of me, I rotate it and thus the visual stimulus that corresponds to the book changes. While I rotate it, the sequence of stimuli that I perceive follow a specific causal order. If I am asked to close my eyes and imagine the process of rotation, the changes in my analog representation of the book should exactly correspond to the actual changes in the visual stimulus that corresponds to reality as I rotate it. Analog representations usually correspond to objects and actions (see rotation process). The structural relationships between the elements of an analog representation correspond exactly to the relationships between the elements of the object being depicted. For example, in a tree the relationship of branches and trunk usually has a specific form. In the corresponding analog representation the relationship between the elements depicting the branches and the elements depicting the trunk will be the same. In short, analog representations are images in the mind. The process that produces the analog representation generally follows the causal chain that usually leads from the symbolized to the symbolizer. A classic example is photography, other analogies apply to other virtual representations, but also to mental representations in other senses. The frequency and intensity of a musical sound is transferred through the air to the microphone membrane to end up after other causal stages imprinted either in the magnetic fields of a tape or in grooves on the vinyl of a record. Analogies apply to tastes, smells, tactile experiences. In contrast, in the case of the digital representation of a sound, such as on CDs, DVDs, the process is different because what is recorded is a conventional numerical signal (in 0 and 1) which the laser head ‘reads’ to convert it into music. The numerical signal contains much more detail than what a musician does when reading a score (also a digital representation) containing notes and rests on the staff. Naturally, analog representations even when they are virtual can be given at various degrees of abstraction (Kosslyn, 1994; Tatler, & Melcher, 2007). A map can be a satellite photograph of an area, it can contain a lot of detail or very little detail. A straight line on a piece of paper extending from a point called ‘Berlin’ to another point called ‘Athens’ with intermediate points placed analogically can be an analog route map that corresponds to the drivers’ thinking in a mental route map that preserves the relationships ‘before’, ‘after’, ‘between’. If we think only of the order of cities as words, it is a verbal representation (like a poem), if we think of it as stations on a path, then it is a verbal representation of an analogical representation. Certainly there are also conventional elements on a map: The border line everyone knows does not exist although it is depicted on every political map. It certainly has political meaning, but it has no physical meaning. Like the so-called ‘center of gravity’ as a point that despite its practical usefulness does not exist as a fixed point but only as a component of gravity forces.
Conceptual representations
Just as there was a dispute about the existence of mental images (analogous internal representations), a corresponding and more intense dispute had previously been expressed and supported against the idea of a ‘logical’ proposition which assigns the meaning of a verbal proposition (sentence) which in turn is expressed during the use of speech to make a statement. The ‘logical’ proposition according to this approach, either does not belong to any language, or belongs to the universal language of thought and is the ultimate bearer of truth, that is, what is or is not true. The dispute against ‘logical propositions’, as against meanings, comes from the behavioral camp. J. Watson (1930) considered thought as ‘inaudible speech,’ that is, our speech that we cannot hear. Wittgenstein (1953) argued strongly against any private language of thought, claiming that the meaning of an expression is exhausted in its observable use in some communicative context. Finally, Quine (1975) argued against meanings and logical propositions by showing that meaning is empirically undetermined. These positions are of particular importance both for the philosophy of language and for the philosophy of psychology, regarding whether reference to mental entities is scientifically acceptable. In this thesis we accept, at least as a central position or working hypothesis, that reference to the mental is acceptable and we bypass the problem of meaning in linguistics by focusing our search on the basic kinds of mental representations and not on whether mental representations exist. Within the framework of Cognitive Science, there is an important problem that is directly related to the above concerns, the so-called LOT or LOTH (Language of Thought Hypothesis), that is, the problem of the Language of Thought (the well-known ‘Mentalese’) which is not identified with any language, but is language-like and a prerequisite for learning any language, as Fodor (1983) says, who also considers Mentalese to be an innate language and universal to the human species. It is obvious that the above positions are particularly problematic (questionable) and it is not necessary to have a solution to the problems (such as, for example, the innateness of LOT or its universality or, possibly, its private character) in order to continue the present research. Besides, what may arise from similar research could perhaps be used in the controversy regarding LOT. What is necessary to do is to explain the two basic types of internal representations in order to understand the distinction between analog / virtual, and digital / conceptual representations. We present here the conceptual representations, by analogy with the verbal representations of language, because this is the closest we have to them as theoretical entities. Besides, the analogical representations (mental images) for the same reason developed by analogy with the external iconic ones. However, the difference between the verbal and the propositional representations must be taken into account, because what is being opposed in the dispute is the propositional versus the analogical representations.
Key differences between propositional and virtual representations.
Propositional representations consist of mental symbols, are abstract, and independent of the nature of any specific sensory feature. This position comes from linguistics and uses the system and rules of logic, based on the view that the abstract sentence (or propositional unit) is the basic unit of semantic representation, that is, it is what can express a verbal sentence, in other words its content, regardless of any spoken language or the medium of expression in which it is expressed. Their advantage is the ability to express meanings in a relatively abstract way, while their disadvantage is the fact that they cannot be applied to structures that go beyond the propositional level (Anderson, 2011). As we have said, the closest example to propositional representations is verbal representations as language, either in written form or in the primary oral form. A sentence in written language consists of words connected according to syntactic and semantic rules, with spaces or punctuation marks between them, while the words themselves consist of letters in a (conventional) order from left to right. A sentence in spoken language has a similar syntactic arrangement of words which consist of sounds / phonemes which almost correspond to the letters of written language.Furthermore, in spoken language the tone of voice gives additional information.The symbols of verbal representations are abstract, that is, the form of the symbol has no causal relationship with the meaning it represents. For example, the analogical representation for a dog is the image of a dog. Some visual representations, such as photographic ones, contain complete information about the symbolized dog seen from a certain point of view. Obviously, not all visual representations of a dog include all the elements of the normal stimulus, we do not process or store all the information that constitutes a visual or auditory stimulus. The verbal symbol for a dog in Greek is ‘σκύλος’ or ‘κύων’, in other languages ‘dog’, ‘chien’, ‘hund’, ‘kjopek’. We conclude, therefore, that there is nothing in the form of the verbal symbol that indicates its meaning. The meaning is imposed on the basis of an arbitrary (conventional) correspondence.In verbal representations, symbols are distinct (either as sounds, letters, or as meanings for the deaf) in contrast to figurative representations where the elements are not distinct. Also, while the part of a verbal symbol does not represent (the first part of the word ‘cauliflower’ does not refer to the known insects), each part of a figurative symbol represents the corresponding part of the depicted (Kargopoulos, 2008). Directly dependent on the above difference is the fact that in verbal representations all transmitted information must be described explicitly, while in a figurative representation of a book on a table the relation “on” is visible, we do not need to specifically state that the book is on the table. On the contrary, if we want to represent the same information propositionally then we should explicitly use the qualifier “on”. The definition of analogical representations is clearly different from the definition of propositional representations (Anderson, 2011. Nanay, 2013).In order to contrast the two types of internal (mental) representations, i.e. mental images with logical (mental) propositions, we used the corresponding external representations, i.e. images and language, and all the differences we recorded apply to the corresponding mental representations we are studying. Going a step deeper, we must attribute these differences to the fact that these two types of representations arise in a different way.The virtual representations are also called analogical and arise initially from the processes of the senses. In this way, the basic mechanisms that lead from the symbolized to the symbolizer are of a causal nature. The initial cause, as a whole, causes the causal symbol after various stages of transition. For this reason, similarity plays a dominant role in the relationship between representation and represented object. A scene or an event is imprinted in memory or on film or tape directly (without being translated into symbols) and the trace it leaves in each case is somewhat similar to the represented scene or event (Kargopoulos, 2008).
In contrast to the above analog representations that are bottom-up, digital representations are top-down because they categorize and select the representation of information based on rules of meaning, syntax and phonology, where symbols are conventional and not causally connected to the symbolized (Raftopoulos, 2009). In place of causality, the basic characteristic of verbal representation that allows the above function of language is compositionality, which is analyzed into two properties:
1) productivity, that is, the fact that from finite elements based on finite rules, infinite composites arise (which are understood by analogous procedures), and 2) systematicity (what is produced is logically related to other productions: it is compatible with others, it implies others, it excludes others) (Kargopoulos, 2008).
These two properties are based on the morphologically syntactic nature of language. The cognitive science bias in favor of digital representation comes from the fact that the main model of mind, the Electronic Computer, is a syntactic machine because it operates exclusively with morphologically processing symbols (Haugeland, 1997).
For virtual analog representations (in the broad sense that includes representations in all senses) there is no corresponding property of syntheticity. We do not have a logic of images until after translation into propositional knowledge. For example, to consider an image of the book ‘above’ the desk as less probable than an image of the book ‘on’ the desk is a matter of cognitive permeability from the propositional knowledge that heavy objects do not float above surfaces without some form of support. In contrast, an image with a cloud ‘above’ the mountain is just as likely as an image with the cloud ‘on’ the mountain based on propositional knowledge about the nature of clouds. Knowing that cognitive processes such as language are possible only with propositional representations and that the direct perception of a visual stimulus is analogical, the question arises: “in what form do we represent knowledge?” Is it an analogical, propositional representation, or some form that includes elements from both categories? The research continues.
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Dr. Bernard Terkimbi Utoo, I am happy to publish my scientific work in Journal of Women Health Care and Issues (JWHCI). The manuscript submission was seamless and peer review process was top notch. I was amazed that 4 reviewers worked on the manuscript which made it a highly technical, standard and excellent quality paper. I appreciate the format and consideration for the APC as well as the speed of publication. It is my pleasure to continue with this scientific relationship with the esteem JWHCI.
This is an acknowledgment for peer reviewers, editorial board of Journal of Clinical Research and Reports. They show a lot of consideration for us as publishers for our research article “Evaluation of the different factors associated with side effects of COVID-19 vaccination on medical students, Mutah university, Al-Karak, Jordan”, in a very professional and easy way. This journal is one of outstanding medical journal.
Dear Hao Jiang, to Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing We greatly appreciate the efficient, professional and rapid processing of our paper by your team. If there is anything else we should do, please do not hesitate to let us know. On behalf of my co-authors, we would like to express our great appreciation to editor and reviewers.
As an author who has recently published in the journal "Brain and Neurological Disorders". I am delighted to provide a testimonial on the peer review process, editorial office support, and the overall quality of the journal. The peer review process at Brain and Neurological Disorders is rigorous and meticulous, ensuring that only high-quality, evidence-based research is published. The reviewers are experts in their fields, and their comments and suggestions were constructive and helped improve the quality of my manuscript. The review process was timely and efficient, with clear communication from the editorial office at each stage. The support from the editorial office was exceptional throughout the entire process. The editorial staff was responsive, professional, and always willing to help. They provided valuable guidance on formatting, structure, and ethical considerations, making the submission process seamless. Moreover, they kept me informed about the status of my manuscript and provided timely updates, which made the process less stressful. The journal Brain and Neurological Disorders is of the highest quality, with a strong focus on publishing cutting-edge research in the field of neurology. The articles published in this journal are well-researched, rigorously peer-reviewed, and written by experts in the field. The journal maintains high standards, ensuring that readers are provided with the most up-to-date and reliable information on brain and neurological disorders. In conclusion, I had a wonderful experience publishing in Brain and Neurological Disorders. The peer review process was thorough, the editorial office provided exceptional support, and the journal's quality is second to none. I would highly recommend this journal to any researcher working in the field of neurology and brain disorders.
Dear Agrippa Hilda, Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery, Editorial Coordinator, I trust this message finds you well. I want to extend my appreciation for considering my article for publication in your esteemed journal. I am pleased to provide a testimonial regarding the peer review process and the support received from your editorial office. The peer review process for my paper was carried out in a highly professional and thorough manner. The feedback and comments provided by the authors were constructive and very useful in improving the quality of the manuscript. This rigorous assessment process undoubtedly contributes to the high standards maintained by your journal.
International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. I strongly recommend to consider submitting your work to this high-quality journal. The support and availability of the Editorial staff is outstanding and the review process was both efficient and rigorous.
Thank you very much for publishing my Research Article titled “Comparing Treatment Outcome Of Allergic Rhinitis Patients After Using Fluticasone Nasal Spray And Nasal Douching" in the Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology. As Medical Professionals we are immensely benefited from study of various informative Articles and Papers published in this high quality Journal. I look forward to enriching my knowledge by regular study of the Journal and contribute my future work in the field of ENT through the Journal for use by the medical fraternity. The support from the Editorial office was excellent and very prompt. I also welcome the comments received from the readers of my Research Article.
Dear Erica Kelsey, Editorial Coordinator of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics Our team is very satisfied with the processing of our paper by your journal. That was fast, efficient, rigorous, but without unnecessary complications. We appreciated the very short time between the submission of the paper and its publication on line on your site.
I am very glad to say that the peer review process is very successful and fast and support from the Editorial Office. Therefore, I would like to continue our scientific relationship for a long time. And I especially thank you for your kindly attention towards my article. Have a good day!
"We recently published an article entitled “Influence of beta-Cyclodextrins upon the Degradation of Carbofuran Derivatives under Alkaline Conditions" in the Journal of “Pesticides and Biofertilizers” to show that the cyclodextrins protect the carbamates increasing their half-life time in the presence of basic conditions This will be very helpful to understand carbofuran behaviour in the analytical, agro-environmental and food areas. We greatly appreciated the interaction with the editor and the editorial team; we were particularly well accompanied during the course of the revision process, since all various steps towards publication were short and without delay".
I would like to express my gratitude towards you process of article review and submission. I found this to be very fair and expedient. Your follow up has been excellent. I have many publications in national and international journal and your process has been one of the best so far. Keep up the great work.
We are grateful for this opportunity to provide a glowing recommendation to the Journal of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. We found that the editorial team were very supportive, helpful, kept us abreast of timelines and over all very professional in nature. The peer review process was rigorous, efficient and constructive that really enhanced our article submission. The experience with this journal remains one of our best ever and we look forward to providing future submissions in the near future.
I am very pleased to serve as EBM of the journal, I hope many years of my experience in stem cells can help the journal from one way or another. As we know, stem cells hold great potential for regenerative medicine, which are mostly used to promote the repair response of diseased, dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives. I think Stem Cell Research and Therapeutics International is a great platform to publish and share the understanding towards the biology and translational or clinical application of stem cells.
I would like to give my testimony in the support I have got by the peer review process and to support the editorial office where they were of asset to support young author like me to be encouraged to publish their work in your respected journal and globalize and share knowledge across the globe. I really give my great gratitude to your journal and the peer review including the editorial office.
I am delighted to publish our manuscript entitled "A Perspective on Cocaine Induced Stroke - Its Mechanisms and Management" in the Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. The peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal are excellent. The manuscripts published are of high quality and of excellent scientific value. I recommend this journal very much to colleagues.
Dr.Tania Muñoz, My experience as researcher and author of a review article in The Journal Clinical Cardiology and Interventions has been very enriching and stimulating. The editorial team is excellent, performs its work with absolute responsibility and delivery. They are proactive, dynamic and receptive to all proposals. Supporting at all times the vast universe of authors who choose them as an option for publication. The team of review specialists, members of the editorial board, are brilliant professionals, with remarkable performance in medical research and scientific methodology. Together they form a frontline team that consolidates the JCCI as a magnificent option for the publication and review of high-level medical articles and broad collective interest. I am honored to be able to share my review article and open to receive all your comments.
“The peer review process of JPMHC is quick and effective. Authors are benefited by good and professional reviewers with huge experience in the field of psychology and mental health. The support from the editorial office is very professional. People to contact to are friendly and happy to help and assist any query authors might have. Quality of the Journal is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on mental health that is useful for other professionals in the field”.
Dear editorial department: On behalf of our team, I hereby certify the reliability and superiority of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews in the peer review process, editorial support, and journal quality. Firstly, the peer review process of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is rigorous, fair, transparent, fast, and of high quality. The editorial department invites experts from relevant fields as anonymous reviewers to review all submitted manuscripts. These experts have rich academic backgrounds and experience, and can accurately evaluate the academic quality, originality, and suitability of manuscripts. The editorial department is committed to ensuring the rigor of the peer review process, while also making every effort to ensure a fast review cycle to meet the needs of authors and the academic community. Secondly, the editorial team of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is composed of a group of senior scholars and professionals with rich experience and professional knowledge in related fields. The editorial department is committed to assisting authors in improving their manuscripts, ensuring their academic accuracy, clarity, and completeness. Editors actively collaborate with authors, providing useful suggestions and feedback to promote the improvement and development of the manuscript. We believe that the support of the editorial department is one of the key factors in ensuring the quality of the journal. Finally, the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is renowned for its high- quality articles and strict academic standards. The editorial department is committed to publishing innovative and academically valuable research results to promote the development and progress of related fields. The International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is reasonably priced and ensures excellent service and quality ratio, allowing authors to obtain high-level academic publishing opportunities in an affordable manner. I hereby solemnly declare that the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews has a high level of credibility and superiority in terms of peer review process, editorial support, reasonable fees, and journal quality. Sincerely, Rui Tao.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions I testity the covering of the peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, we deeply appreciate the interest shown in our work and its publication. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you. The peer review process, as well as the support provided by the editorial office, have been exceptional, and the quality of the journal is very high, which was a determining factor in our decision to publish with you.
The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews journal clinically in the future time.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude for the trust placed in our team for the publication in your journal. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you on this project. I am pleased to inform you that both the peer review process and the attention from the editorial coordination have been excellent. Your team has worked with dedication and professionalism to ensure that your publication meets the highest standards of quality. We are confident that this collaboration will result in mutual success, and we are eager to see the fruits of this shared effort.
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I hope this message finds you well. I want to express my utmost gratitude for your excellent work and for the dedication and speed in the publication process of my article titled "Navigating Innovation: Qualitative Insights on Using Technology for Health Education in Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients." I am very satisfied with the peer review process, the support from the editorial office, and the quality of the journal. I hope we can maintain our scientific relationship in the long term.
Dear Monica Gissare, - Editorial Coordinator of Nutrition and Food Processing. ¨My testimony with you is truly professional, with a positive response regarding the follow-up of the article and its review, you took into account my qualities and the importance of the topic¨.
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, The review process for the article “The Handling of Anti-aggregants and Anticoagulants in the Oncologic Heart Patient Submitted to Surgery” was extremely rigorous and detailed. From the initial submission to the final acceptance, the editorial team at the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” demonstrated a high level of professionalism and dedication. The reviewers provided constructive and detailed feedback, which was essential for improving the quality of our work. Communication was always clear and efficient, ensuring that all our questions were promptly addressed. The quality of the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” is undeniable. It is a peer-reviewed, open-access publication dedicated exclusively to disseminating high-quality research in the field of clinical cardiology and cardiovascular interventions. The journal's impact factor is currently under evaluation, and it is indexed in reputable databases, which further reinforces its credibility and relevance in the scientific field. I highly recommend this journal to researchers looking for a reputable platform to publish their studies.
Dear Editorial Coordinator of the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing! "I would like to thank the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing for including and publishing my article. The peer review process was very quick, movement and precise. The Editorial Board has done an extremely conscientious job with much help, valuable comments and advices. I find the journal very valuable from a professional point of view, thank you very much for allowing me to be part of it and I would like to participate in the future!”
Dealing with The Journal of Neurology and Neurological Surgery was very smooth and comprehensive. The office staff took time to address my needs and the response from editors and the office was prompt and fair. I certainly hope to publish with this journal again.Their professionalism is apparent and more than satisfactory. Susan Weiner
My Testimonial Covering as fellowing: Lin-Show Chin. The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
My experience publishing in Psychology and Mental Health Care was exceptional. The peer review process was rigorous and constructive, with reviewers providing valuable insights that helped enhance the quality of our work. The editorial team was highly supportive and responsive, making the submission process smooth and efficient. The journal's commitment to high standards and academic rigor makes it a respected platform for quality research. I am grateful for the opportunity to publish in such a reputable journal.
My experience publishing in International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews was exceptional. I Come forth to Provide a Testimonial Covering the Peer Review Process and the editorial office for the Professional and Impartial Evaluation of the Manuscript.
I would like to offer my testimony in the support. I have received through the peer review process and support the editorial office where they are to support young authors like me, encourage them to publish their work in your esteemed journals, and globalize and share knowledge globally. I really appreciate your journal, peer review, and editorial office.
Dear Agrippa Hilda- Editorial Coordinator of Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery, "The peer review process was very quick and of high quality, which can also be seen in the articles in the journal. The collaboration with the editorial office was very good."
I would like to express my sincere gratitude for the support and efficiency provided by the editorial office throughout the publication process of my article, “Delayed Vulvar Metastases from Rectal Carcinoma: A Case Report.” I greatly appreciate the assistance and guidance I received from your team, which made the entire process smooth and efficient. The peer review process was thorough and constructive, contributing to the overall quality of the final article. I am very grateful for the high level of professionalism and commitment shown by the editorial staff, and I look forward to maintaining a long-term collaboration with the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
To Dear Erin Aust, I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation for the opportunity to have my work published in this esteemed journal. The entire publication process was smooth and well-organized, and I am extremely satisfied with the final result. The Editorial Team demonstrated the utmost professionalism, providing prompt and insightful feedback throughout the review process. Their clear communication and constructive suggestions were invaluable in enhancing my manuscript, and their meticulous attention to detail and dedication to quality are truly commendable. Additionally, the support from the Editorial Office was exceptional. From the initial submission to the final publication, I was guided through every step of the process with great care and professionalism. The team's responsiveness and assistance made the entire experience both easy and stress-free. I am also deeply impressed by the quality and reputation of the journal. It is an honor to have my research featured in such a respected publication, and I am confident that it will make a meaningful contribution to the field.
"I am grateful for the opportunity of contributing to [International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews] and for the rigorous review process that enhances the quality of research published in your esteemed journal. I sincerely appreciate the time and effort of your team who have dedicatedly helped me in improvising changes and modifying my manuscript. The insightful comments and constructive feedback provided have been invaluable in refining and strengthening my work".
I thank the ‘Journal of Clinical Research and Reports’ for accepting this article for publication. This is a rigorously peer reviewed journal which is on all major global scientific data bases. I note the review process was prompt, thorough and professionally critical. It gave us an insight into a number of important scientific/statistical issues. The review prompted us to review the relevant literature again and look at the limitations of the study. The peer reviewers were open, clear in the instructions and the editorial team was very prompt in their communication. This journal certainly publishes quality research articles. I would recommend the journal for any future publications.
Dear Jessica Magne, with gratitude for the joint work. Fast process of receiving and processing the submitted scientific materials in “Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions”. High level of competence of the editors with clear and correct recommendations and ideas for enriching the article.
We found the peer review process quick and positive in its input. The support from the editorial officer has been very agile, always with the intention of improving the article and taking into account our subsequent corrections.
My article, titled 'No Way Out of the Smartphone Epidemic Without Considering the Insights of Brain Research,' has been republished in the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. The review process was seamless and professional, with the editors being both friendly and supportive. I am deeply grateful for their efforts.
To Dear Erin Aust – Editorial Coordinator of Journal of General Medicine and Clinical Practice! I declare that I am absolutely satisfied with your work carried out with great competence in following the manuscript during the various stages from its receipt, during the revision process to the final acceptance for publication. Thank Prof. Elvira Farina
Dear Jessica, and the super professional team of the ‘Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions’ I am sincerely grateful to the coordinated work of the journal team for the no problem with the submission of my manuscript: “Cardiometabolic Disorders in A Pregnant Woman with Severe Preeclampsia on the Background of Morbid Obesity (Case Report).” The review process by 5 experts was fast, and the comments were professional, which made it more specific and academic, and the process of publication and presentation of the article was excellent. I recommend that my colleagues publish articles in this journal, and I am interested in further scientific cooperation. Sincerely and best wishes, Dr. Oleg Golyanovskiy.
Dear Ashley Rosa, Editorial Coordinator of the journal - Psychology and Mental Health Care. " The process of obtaining publication of my article in the Psychology and Mental Health Journal was positive in all areas. The peer review process resulted in a number of valuable comments, the editorial process was collaborative and timely, and the quality of this journal has been quickly noticed, resulting in alternative journals contacting me to publish with them." Warm regards, Susan Anne Smith, PhD. Australian Breastfeeding Association.
Dear Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator, Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, Auctores Publishing LLC. I appreciate the journal (JCCI) editorial office support, the entire team leads were always ready to help, not only on technical front but also on thorough process. Also, I should thank dear reviewers’ attention to detail and creative approach to teach me and bring new insights by their comments. Surely, more discussions and introduction of other hemodynamic devices would provide better prevention and management of shock states. Your efforts and dedication in presenting educational materials in this journal are commendable. Best wishes from, Farahnaz Fallahian.
Dear Maria Emerson, Editorial Coordinator, International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews, Auctores Publishing LLC. I am delighted to have published our manuscript, "Acute Colonic Pseudo-Obstruction (ACPO): A rare but serious complication following caesarean section." I want to thank the editorial team, especially Maria Emerson, for their prompt review of the manuscript, quick responses to queries, and overall support. Yours sincerely Dr. Victor Olagundoye.
Dear Ashley Rosa, Editorial Coordinator, International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. Many thanks for publishing this manuscript after I lost confidence the editors were most helpful, more than other journals Best wishes from, Susan Anne Smith, PhD. Australian Breastfeeding Association.
Dear Agrippa Hilda, Editorial Coordinator, Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. The entire process including article submission, review, revision, and publication was extremely easy. The journal editor was prompt and helpful, and the reviewers contributed to the quality of the paper. Thank you so much! Eric Nussbaum, MD
Dr Hala Al Shaikh This is to acknowledge that the peer review process for the article ’ A Novel Gnrh1 Gene Mutation in Four Omani Male Siblings, Presentation and Management ’ sent to the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews was quick and smooth. The editorial office was prompt with easy communication.
Dear Erin Aust, Editorial Coordinator, Journal of General Medicine and Clinical Practice. We are pleased to share our experience with the “Journal of General Medicine and Clinical Practice”, following the successful publication of our article. The peer review process was thorough and constructive, helping to improve the clarity and quality of the manuscript. We are especially thankful to Ms. Erin Aust, the Editorial Coordinator, for her prompt communication and continuous support throughout the process. Her professionalism ensured a smooth and efficient publication experience. The journal upholds high editorial standards, and we highly recommend it to fellow researchers seeking a credible platform for their work. Best wishes By, Dr. Rakhi Mishra.