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Research Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2637-8914/289
1Department of Chemistry, Kenyatta University
2Organization for Marine Science and Technology, Nagasaki University, Japan
3 Department of Pharmacognosy, Pharmaceutical Chemistry, pharmaceutics, and Industrial Pharmacy, Kenyatta university
4 Department of Food, Nutrition, and Dietetics, Kenyatta University
5 Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Kisumu
6 Department of Food Science and Technology, Jomo Kenyatta University and technology
*Corresponding Author: Nyabuti George, Department of Chemistry, Kenyatta University.
Citation: Nyabuti George, Nawiri Mildred, Hirasaka Katsuya, Everlyne Wanzala, Judith Munga, et al, (2025), Bioacessility of Selected Minerals from Raw and Processed Finger Millet (Eleusine Coracana), J. Nutrition and Food Processing, 8(2); DOI:10.31579/2637-8914/289
Copyright: © 2025, Nyabuti George. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 30 December 2024 | Accepted: 20 January 2025 | Published: 06 February 2025
Keywords: bioaccessibility; caco-2 cell; finger millet; antinutrients; processing, mineral content
Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is a staple crop in developing countries, offering essential minerals for managing non-communicable diseases, such as chromium (Cr³⁺) and potassium (K), which support insulin sensitivity and lower blood pressure. Despite its nutritional value, finger millet (FM) remains underutilized due to the poor bioaccessibility of its nutrients, influenced by factors such as millet variety, antinutrient content, and processing methods. This study analyzed the levels of selected minerals in 18 finger millet varieties being developed by Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Kenya. The superior variety, IE3779FM, in terms of mineral content, was used for further studies on antinutrient and nutrient bioaccessibility. Mineral content (Cr³⁺, K, Fe, Zn, Mg, Ca, P) was determined using ICP-MS, antinutrients (tannins, phytates, phenols, oxalates) were measured by titration and BCA kits, while bioaccessibility was determined using a Caco-2 cell procedure. The different variety of finger millet contain significant mineral levels (0.56–653 mg/100g), exceeding RDA values. Processing of the IE3779FM variety reduced antinutrients by 3.71%–42.65% during malting and 7.14%–63.29% during roasting. Mineral levels were not significantly different between raw and processed forms, attributed to the heat stability of minerals, while proximate composition was minimally altered by processing. Bioaccessibility studies revealed that malting and roasting generally increased mineral bioaccessibility by 0.56%–53.62 % and 0.92-29.39 % respectively. The study concluded that finger millet is rich in essential minerals, and that malting and roasting reduce antinutrients while significantly enhancing mineral bioaccessibility, making it a valuable nutritional source for food formulation for T2D patients.
Finger millet (Eleusine coracana), a tropical and sub-tropical drought-resistant crop, is cultivated in many countries in the developing world including Kenya. Finger millet offers enormous but underexplored nutritional benefits that can address nutrient deficiencies prevalent in many developing countries (Ramashia et al., 2019; Sahoo et al., 2024). Verma and Patel, (2013) reported that finger millet grains are rich in essential minerals such as zinc (22 mg/100g), iron (6.3 mg/100g),calcium(344mg/100g),Magnesium(228),potassium(1419mg/100g),phosphorous(250mg/100g) as well as carbohydrates (81.5%), dietary fiber (18–20%), starch (65–75%), proteins (9.8%), fat (1–1.7%), and crude fiber (4.3%).
To promote nutritional security through the utilization of finger millet in Kenya, the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) is studying 18 finger millet varieties for agronomic traits. These varieties thrive across wider ecological zones (Mgonja, 2007; Onyango, 2016) and grow on various substrates, maturing quickly with reduced pest susceptibility (Devi et al., 2014).
This nutritional profile makes finger millet valuable in addressing non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as type 2 diabetes (T2D). The prevalence of T2D is rising globally, with over 539 million people worldwide have T2D, including 0.9 million in Kenya (International Diabetes Federation (IDF) Report, 2022). The devastating effects of T2D include damage to small vessels, leading to heart attacks, strokes, and diabetic foot complications (Atlas, 2019; WHO and FAO, 2003). The growing prevalence of T2D underscores the need for urgent interventions (Ebere et al., 2019).
Food-based approaches, such as formulating functional foods, have been proposed to supplement drug therapy. However, these approaches face challenges such as cost and resistance (Ramashia et al., 2019). Certain microelements in finger millet, like chromium (III) ions, enhance insulin activity, increasing insulin receptor sensitivity and pancreatic β-cell functionality to regulate blood sugar levels (Pechova and Pavlata, 2007). Finger millet-based formulations could thus aid in managing T2D in developing countries.
However, finger millet grains also contain antinutrients, such as phenols, oxalates, and phytate (George et al., 2023), which reduce mineral bioaccessibility (Arzoo et al., 2024). Processing methods like roasting and malting mitigate these effects, reducing antinutrients and enhancing nutrient bioaccessibility (Onyambu et al., 2021). Roasting improves flavor and shelf life while malting activates enzymes that degrade complex compounds, increasing nutrient bioaccessibility (Pragya Singh, 2012b, 2012a)
Mineral bioaccessibility can be accessed via in vivo or in vitro methods. Ethical restrictions limit in vivo studies (Parada and Aguilera, 2007), making in vitro methods, such as those using Caco-2 cells, more practical. These methods simulate digestion and absorption processes, measuring nutrient concentrations in final extracts (Kus et al., 2023). This study investigated the effects of roasting and malting on mineral levels, antinutrients, and bioaccessibility in finger millet, with the intention of promoting it in food formulation.
2.1 Source of the materials
All the eighteen-finger millet (FM) varieties were obtained from the KALRO Center in Kisii Kenya. The chemicals used in this study were of analytical grade (99.99% purity) manufactured by Sigma Aldrich Company and supplied by Kobian Kenya Limited, Nairobi and ANGUS chemical company in Japan.
2.2 Finger Millet preparation
The finger millet grains were dehulled using a seed buro and separated by a seed blower before being stored in the cold room at 4°C.
2.3 Processing of finger millet
2.3.1 Malting
Malting of finger millet (FM) was conducted following a method adopted by (Chandrasekara and Shahidi, 2012) with modifications. Approximately 100 g of FM grain was soaked in excess distilled water at 22°C for 12 hr. The water was then carefully decanted and the grains were put on a perforated tray covered with cotton wool at 28°C for 4 days with occasional turning at the first 24 hours for sprouting to occur. Samples were withdrawn from the germination bed after 48 and 60 hours. Any ungerminated seeds were manually removed and discarded. The germinated grains were then sun-dried to a moisture content of 12% at 25 – 28°C for 2 days. Subsequently, the dried grains were extruded at 105 – 110°C to a moisture content of 8 % before being ground to fine powder.
2.3.2 Roasting
This was done according to the method by Arzoo et al (2024). Approximately 10.65 g of FM were soaked in 5% W/V for 6 h and then roasted in a toaster for 5 minutes at 120°C and another sample for I min at 180°C. They were then cooled to room temperature and ground by a coffee grinder. The flour was passed through a sieve of 200 µm and stored in the freezer at 4°C for further analysis (Azad et al., 2019).
2.4 Mineral analysis
The mineral composition (K, Fe, Zn, Mg, Ca, P) of the finger millet varieties was determined using a method described by Kumari (2017). The inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES; 9820 series) which utilized a standard mixture for all the elemental analysis was used to obtain calibration curves. All analyses were carried out in triplicates (Kumari and Platel, 2017)
2.4.1 Chromium (III) ions
The difference between the total chromium and chromium (VI) was used to get chromium (III) ions. The procedure to analyze Cr6+ was aimed at selectively determining Cr6+ in samples by adopting a method described by Kumari and Patel (2017) and Moema et al. (2024) with modification. Approximately 1.00 g sample was weighed and placed in a 10.00 mL polypropylene tube, followed by the addition of 9 mL of 0.01M NaOH solution. The tubes were then horizontally placed in an oscillating agitator for 17 h at 300 oscillations per minute at room temperature to selectively extract the Cr6+. After extraction, 1.00 mL of 1.00 M NH4NO3 solution was added, and the sample was shaken briefly and centrifuged for 30 min at 12,500 rpm. The concentration of Cr6+ in the sample was measured by ICP-OES (9820 series). Alkaline Cr6+ standard solutions and the blank reagents underwent the same pretreatment procedure for comparison. Additionally, the pH of the samples was determined to avoid any potential effect on Cr6+ measurement by suspending aliquots of 10.00g of the sample in 100.00 mL of distilled water, followed by centrifugation for 30 min at 12,500 rpm, and the pH measurement of the supernatant (Ogo et al., 2011; Kumari and Platel, 2017; George et al., 2023; Moema et al.,2024)
To obtain chromium (III) the equation below was used.
Chromium (III) ions = Total chromium-chromium (VI) ions
2.5 Determination of the proximate composition of IE339 FM variety
The proximate composition of raw, malted, and roasted FM was determined according to the method of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (Association of Official Analytical Chemists. et al., 2006)
2.6 Antinutrients
2.6.1 Phytates content
Phytic acid was determined as described by Olatunde et al. (2018). The sample (0.50 g) was weighed into a flask, 25.00 mL of 2% HCl was added and allowed to stand for 3 h, after which it was filtered using 900 mm Advantech filter paper, and 6.25 mL of the filtrate was placed in a separate 50.00 mL conical flask with 1.50 mL of 0.30% ammonium thiocyanate solution as the indicator. Exactly 26.50 mL of distilled water was added to give the desired acidity. This was then titrated with the standard iron (III) chloride (0.00195 g of iron per mL) until a brown, yellow color persisted for 5 minutes. Phytic acid was calculated:
Phytic acid (%) = titrevalue x 0.00195 x 1.19 x 100
2.6.2 Oxalate Content
Oxalate was determined using a modified titration method by Unuofin et al., (2017). The pulverized sample (1.00 g) was weighed in a 100 mL conical flask, an accurately measured volume of 75.00 mL of 3M H2SO4 was added and the solution was stirred intermittently with a magnetic stirrer for about 1 hour, followed by filtering using Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The sample filtrate (25.00 mL) was collected and heated to 80°C. This filtrate was always kept above 70°C. The hot aliquot was titrated continuously with 0.05 mol/L against hot 0.05 M KMnO4 solution until the endpoint revealed by a light pink color which persisted for 15 seconds was reached. The concentration of the oxalates in each sample was determined using the following calculation.
1 mL of 0.05molesper litre of KMno4 = 2.2 mg Oxalates
2.6.3 Phenols content
The phenol content was determined using the method described by Piece (2020). Distilled water (10.00 µL) was added into 1A to 6A of the 96-well plate. The volume of 20.00 µL of the gallic acid standard prepared by dissolving 320.00 µg of gallic in 1 mL of distilled water was added in well 7A of the 96-well plate. 10.00 µL of the solution from 7A of the 96 well plate was transferred into well 6A up to well 2A while pipetting. Well, 1A contained only distilled water. The sample (1-14) was placed in wells 1B up to well 2C. A volume of 50.00 µL (10% phenolic solution) was added to all the wells used. A 40.00 µL of 7.5 % aqueous sodium carbonate solution was then added to all the used wells. The 96-well plate was placed on a shaker at room temperature for 60 minutes for color development. Finally, absorbance was measured at 765 nm with a microreader (Pierce, 2020).
2.6.4 Tannin content
The tannin content was determined following a method described by Das (2020). Initially, 0.1001 g of the sample was mixed with 20.00 mL of 50 % methanol in a 50.00 mL beaker, homogenized, and heated in a water bath at 80°C for one hour with continuous stirring. After filtration with a double-layered Whatman No. 1 filter paper into a 100.00 mL volumetric flask, the filtrate was diluted with water to the mark and thoroughly mixed. Then, 20.00 mL of distilled water, 2.50 mL Folin–Denis reagent, and 10.00 mL of 17 % Na2CO3 were added and mixed. The mixture was topped up with distilled water, mixed, and allowed to stand for 20 min until a blue-green coloration developed. To quantify tannin content, the absorbance of both tannic acid standard solutions and the samples was measured using a microplate reader at a wavelength of 540 nm (Das et al., 2020)
2.7 In vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion (GID)
The in vitro gastrointestinal digestion (GID) process followed the method outlined by Chandraseka and Shahidi (2011). The whole process involved three stages, oral, gastric, and intestinal stages. In the oral stage, 2.50 g of the FM sample was homogenized and mixed with 2.50 mL of salivary fluid in a 1:1 ratio and stirred for 5 minutes at a pH of 6.6. The gastric stage involved adding 5.00 mL of gastric acid with pepsin, adjusting the pH to 3, and incubating at 37°C for 2 h with pH checks and adjustments every 30 minutes (Chandrasekara and Shahidi, 2011). The intestinal stage commenced by adding 7.50 mL of the simulated intestinal fluid, increasing the pH to 6-7, and introducing pancreatic fluid. The digestion tubes were incubated at 37°C with pH checks and adjustments after every 30 minutes for 2 hours. Enzyme activity is deactivated by placing samples in an ice bath for 10 minutes at pH 9.
2.8 Caco2- cell culture
Caco2 cells were obtained from RIKEN BioResource Research Center in Japan. Seeding of the Caco2 cells was carried out at a density of 50,000 cells/mL in twelve well plates treated with collagen. The cells for mineral bioaccessibility were grown in MEM (Minimum Essential Medium) containing 20
3.1. Mineral levels in raw and processed finger millet varieties
The mean levels of selected minerals in finger varieties are presented in Table 1. The eighteen finger millet varieties were grown in the same climatic and soil conditions. The study primarily analyzes essential minerals in the body like Fe, Zn, Mg, Ca, and P. The levels of minerals in the FM were found to be significantly different across the eighteen FM varieties and the values exceeding the RDA. For instance, Cr3+ ranged from 0.53±0.08 (Ikhulule) to 1.29±0.05 (IE3779), with a mean value of 0.92 mg/100 g DW while potassium levels ranged from 341.93 to 643.0 mg/100gDW with IE3779FM variety containing the highest levels of Cr3+ and K among the 18 varieties. Other varieties that were promising nutritionally include IE4115 which showed significant levels of Cr3+ (1.25±0.17) and K (643.0±34.1) mg/100g. KATF1 contained significantly high levels of Zn (135.02±3.25) and Mg (292.30±3.12) mg/100g than the RDA while Snapping P and P224 were superior in Ca and P respectively. Similar findings were reported by Verma and Patel (2013) who found the levels of minerals as follows; Ca (344), Mg (228), Fe (6.3) and P (250) g/100g DW while Font et al., (2020) reported the levels of K (722mg/100g) and Zn (32.3 mg/100g) in snapping P finger millet variety to be 722mg/100g and 32.3mg/100g (Font et al., 2020). The variety IE3779 FM was chosen for further processing due to its nutritional superiority in terms of Cr3+ and K as targets for T2D and hypertension.
| Variety | Cr3+ | K | Fe | Zn | Mg | Ca | P |
| EUFM401 | 0.91±0.06cd | 341.93±3.0i | 29.39±0.23a | 35.88±1.24f | 286.25±3.76ab | 470.83±7.22c | 194.0±0.01i |
| EUFM502 | 0.59±0.01ef | 605.84±6.4abc | 12.37±0.21f | 31.30±1.57f | 286.16±4.66ab | 537.50±12.50b | 169.41±0.14n |
| EUFM503 | 1.12±0.01ab | 278.00±7.5j | 11.41±0.07g | 39.11±2.80ef | 289.68±8.45ab | 387.50±12.50g | 213.42±0.28e |
| IE3779 | 1.29±0.05a | 646.49±3.29a | 0.724±0.1h | 51.31±6.97cd | 284.29±0.47ab | 466.67±7.22cd | 215.67±0.14d |
| IE4115 | 1.25±0.17a | 643.0±34.1a | 10.33±0.11h | 52.74±5.32cd | 281.38±3.35ab | 337.50±12.50h | 250.91±0.57b |
| IKHLULE | 0.53±0.08f | 392.61±2.94hi | 11.92±0.08f | 34.77±4.54f | 286.09±5.75ab | 445.83±7.22cd | 201.83±0.29g |
| KAK W3 | 1.15±0.01ab | 518.33±7.64de | 9.73±0.12i | 51.18±0.64cd | 286.16±4.66ab | 445.83±7.22cd | 205.83±0.29f |
| KAKW1 | 1.15±0.09ab | 615.43±9.90ab | 7.93±0.04k | 59.67±2.93c | 285.71±6.99ab | 416.67±7.22ef | 163.16±0.58p |
| KAKW4 | 0.82±0.01cd | 551.97±10.56cd | 8.59±0.14j | 48.9±4.81cde | 289.22±4.91ab | 441.67±7.22de | 176.92±0.14m |
| KATF1 | 0.81±0.02cd | 426.20±5.41gh | 26.32±0.26b | 135.02±3.25a | 292.30±3.12a | 400.0±0.0fg | 129.5±0.021q |
| KERICHO | 0.91±0.02cd | 630.06±5.00ab | 16.98±0.09d | 36.18±2.43f | 292.32±0.69a | 464.67±7.22cd | 188.83±0.14k |
| KN814 | 0.81±0.02cd | 495.96±8.65ef | 10.59±0.13h | 39.09±4.90ef | 287.07±6.00ab | 470.83±7.22c | 191.8±0.0j |
| MASENO | 0.56±0.08ef | 451.0±50.5fg | 23.64±0.05c | 93.12±4.12b | 286.19±2.52ab | 458.33±7.22cd | 200.42±0.28h |
| NKFM1 | 0.73±0.04def | 483.46±11.09ef | 12.24±0.22f | 47.846±1.19de | 287.87±6.45ab | 412.5±0.0fg | 166.0±0.031o |
| P224 | 0.76±0.08de | 584.6±18.3bc | 13.33±0.21e | 57.637±0.28cd | 289.65±2.72ab | 445.83±7.22cd | 321.67±0.144a |
| SEC915 | 1.12±0.08ab | 577.13±3.67bc | 9.58±0.18i | 35.33±2.61f | 288.32±3.22ab | 387.50±12.50g | 180.17±0.28l |
| SNAPPING | 1.25±0.061a | 483.0±23.6ef | 12.98±0.21e | 34.27±0.09f | 286.18±4.97ab | 575.0±0.0a | 117.83±0.29r |
| U-15 | 0.96±0.09bc | 626.7±25.2ab | 10.42±0.25h | 94.10±4.08b | 279.99±3.16b | 387.50±12.50g | 235.33±0.29c |
| P values | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| WHO and FAO, 2003)g/100g | 0.035 | 34 | 0.18 | 0.15 | 4.2 | 10 | 5 |
Mean values followed by the same small letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly from one another (SNK-test, α=0.05), n is the number of replicas
Table 1: Mean levels of selected minerals in raw FM varieties (Mean± SE, n=3) mg/100g DW
3.2 Proximate composition of raw and processed IE3779 finger millet variety
Table 2 gives the proximate composition of raw, malted IE3779FM variety. The ash content of roasted and malted IE3779FM variety was observed to decrease insignificantly compared to the ash content of raw IE3779FM. This decrease in ash content might be associated with the loss of outer covering and other parts of the grains during the soaking, germination, and drying process (Ramashia et al., 2019). The moisture content of malted FM (11.28%) was significantly higher than that of raw FM (10.03 %) and roasted FM (8.99 %). This increase in malted FM is associated with enhanced water absorption by FM during soaking before germination (Devi et al., 2014). Similar results were reported by Sahoo et al. (2024) who reported the percentage proximate composition in malted brown FM as follows; moisture (10.28), Carbohydrate (68.84),Fat (1.3),proteins (8.64),Total ash (1.94) and fibre (9.98).
The protein content of malted FM (8.99 %) and roasted FM (9.92 %) was significantly higher than that of raw FM that found to be 8.26 %). This is due to the breakdown of nitrogenous compounds to form amino acids and the activation of enzyme proteases to produce amino acids and peptides (Arzoo et al., 2024; Sahoo et al., 2024). The findings were similar to those reported by Ramashia et al. (2019). However, roasted FM (1.39 %) and malted FM (1.48 %) were found to contain significantly lower amounts of fat than raw FM (1.58 %). This might be due to the oxidation of fatty acids to carbon (iv) oxide and water to provide energy important for germination (Pragya Singh, 2012a).
The carbohydrate content of malted and roasted FM was significantly lower than that of raw FM. This might be due to the utilization of carbohydrates by microorganisms during malting and the loss of dry matter during roasting respectively (Arzoo et al., 2024). Similarly, the fiber content of finger millet decreased significantly during malting and roasting. This might be due to the mechanical loss of seed coat during soaking, germination, grinding, and sieving (Pechova and Pavlata, 2007).
| Raw/Processed | Ash | Moisture | Protein | Fibre | Fat | Carbs |
| Raw | 2.98±0.01a | 10.03±0.03b | 8.26±0.05c | 4.36±0.01a | 1.58±0.02a | 68.89±0.02a |
| Malted | 2.95±0.01b | 11.28±0.03a | 8.99±0.02b | 4.21±0.02b | 1.48±0.02b | 68.77±0.02a |
| Roasted | 2.90±0.01c | 8.99±0.01c | 9.92±0.05a | 4.06±0.01c | 1.39±0.01c | 68.19±0.02b |
| P value | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Table 2: Percentage proximate composition in IE3779 FM variety
3.3 Mineral levels in processed IE3779 FM variety
Table 3 shows mineral levels (mg/100gDW) in raw, malted, and roasted IE3779 FM variety. The variety IE3779 was chosen based on the nutritional superiority of Cr3+ and K minerals as a target for formulating foods for T2D patients. The result on levels of the minerals in raw and processed (malting for 60 h and roasting for 120°C) showed no significant increase in levels of Cr3+, K, Zn, Mg, Ca, and P in the IE3779 FM variety. This is attributed to the heat stability of minerals given that processing concentrates the existing minerals without introducing new ones (Arzoo et al., 2024).
Mean values followed by the same small letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly from one another (SNK-test, α=0.05), n is the number of replicates
Table 3: Mean levels of minerals in processed IE3779FM variety (Mean± SE, mg/100g DW)
3.4 Antinutrient levels in processed IE3779 finger millet variety
Table 4 shows the levels of various antinutrients such as tannin, phenols, phytates, and oxalates of raw, malted, and roasted IE3779 FM. The antinutrients cause the chelation of dietary minerals in the gastrointestinal tract reducing minerals bioaccessibility. The decrease in the levels of antinutrients was not substantial except for phytates and tannins (George et al., 2023). The levels of phytates reduced significantly from 15.50±0.45 in raw to 5.69±1.04 mg/100g DW in roasted FM, a decrease of about 63.29%. This was due to the leaching of phytates during germination. The levels of tannins decreased in malted FM (12.13±0.95) as compared to raw FM (17.17±0.06) due to leaching and increased enzymatic activities of the enzyme Tannase. Malting and roasting led to decreased antinutrients in FM effectively reducing anti-nutrients in finger millet, thus enhancing mineral value and bioaccessibility. Arzoo et al. (2024) reported that soaking, boiling and germination reduced the levels antinutrients significantly similar to this study.
| Food | Sample | Tannins | Phenols | Phytates | oxalates |
| FM | RAW | 17.17±0.06a | 27.53±1.409a | 15.50±0.45b | 0.28±0.01bc |
| Malt 60 | 12.13±0.95b | 26.51±0.900ab | 8.89±0.23c | 0.25±0.01d | |
| RT120 | 12.89±0.13c | 25.09±0.998ab | 5.69±1.04d | 0.26±0.00cd | |
| P values | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Mean values followed by the same small letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly from one another (SNK-test, α=0.05), n is the number of replicas.
Table 4: Antinutrient levels in processed IE3779 FM (Mean± SE, n=3) mg/100g DW
3.5 Percentage bioaccessibility of minerals in processed IE3779 FM variety
Table 5 presents the results for minerals bioaccessibility in raw and processed IE3779FM. Results indicated that the percentage bioaccessibility of the minerals increased significantly on processing. This is associated with the decrease of antinutrients in processing (Onyambu et al., 2021). For instance, Cr3+ in raw FM was 14.04 % and increased to 16.45 % after malting for 60 hours and 16.86 % after roasting at 120°C for 5 minutes. A similar trend was observed for Ca, with its bioaccessibility increasing after malting and roasting. However, K, Fe, and P percentage bioaccessibility generally increased during malting but declined on roasting at 120°C for 5 minutes. This effect on malting can be associated with the combined effects of soaking, germination, and heat treatment (Arzoo et al., 2024; Sahoo et al., 2024). The result indicated no significant change in the percentage bioaccessibility of Zn, Fe, and P minerals on malting. However, the bioaccessibility of Cr3+, K, Mg, and Ca decreased significantly. The beneficial effects of malting on the Zn, Fe, and P bioaccessibility may be attributed to the phytate content (Platel et al., 2010). Processing does not significantly increase the levels of minerals due to their heat stability but increases minerals' percentage bioaccessibility in the gut (Pragya Singh, 2012a; Kus et al., 2023).
| VARIETY | Raw/processed n=3 | Cr3+ | K | Fe | Zn | Mg | Ca | P |
| IE3779FM | RAW FM | (0.18)14.04a | (144.89)22.41e | (0.64)5.91d | (4.16)8.04d | (56.66)20.03d | (120.04)26.05b | (1.27)0.59c |
| MALT60 h | (0.22)16.45b | (162.33)25.05d | (0.67)6.18d | (4.19)8.13d | (83.46)29.39c | (136.34)29.05a | (1.99)0.92c | |
| RT120 ֩C | (0.23)16.86b | (347.82)53.62a | (3.03)28.30a | (15.49)30.24b | (100.39)35.16a | (122.24)26.17b | (10.89)5.03a | |
| P values | 0.003 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Mean values followed by the same small letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly from one another (SNK-test, α=0.05), n is the number of replicas.
Table 5: Percentage of bioaccessibility of minerals in processed finger millet.
The study concluded that different finger millet varieties contain significantly different levels of selected minerals Cr³⁺, K, Fe, Zn, Mg, Ca, P (0.56–653) mg/100g that were above RDA levels. Processing through malting and roasting significantly decreased tannins, phytates, phenols, and oxalates which affects the nutritional bioaccessibility. The percentage bioaccessibility of minerals significantly increased on malting and roasting due to the combined effects of soaking, germination, and roasting improved leaching of minerals and enhanced enzymatic hydrolysis that decreased the antinutrients. Hence malting and roasting can be considered effective processing methods to enhance nutrient bioaccessibility of the finger millet. Finger millet can be used as a good source of nutrients for T2D patients.
The authors declare no conflict of interest. They bear responsibility for the content and composition of this paper
The Department of Chemistry, Department of Fisheries and Environmental Science Nagasaki University, Japan, Department of Food Science and Dietetics Kenyatta University for providing laboratory space, National Research Fund (NRF) for supporting laboratory expenses, and the Planetary Health Phase Exchange Program for the fellowship during the research period.
George Nyabuti was involved in collecting data and drafted the manuscript. Nyambaka Hudson, Nawiri Mildred, and Everlyne Wanzala formulated the study area and guided the scientific writing and coordinated the various sections of the manuscript. Hirasaka Katsuya gave guidance on Caco2-cell culture during data collection. Chrispus Oduori guided the selection and planting of finger millet seeds at the Kisii KALRO center, while John Kinyuru and Judith Munga gave guidance on optimal conditions for processing.
This project is partially funded by the National Research Fund (NRF) for laboratory work.
The entire project involving value addition to the growing of finger millet to processing and formulation of food products received ethical from the Kenyatta University Ethical Review Committee.
Clearly Auctoresonline and particularly Psychology and Mental Health Care Journal is dedicated to improving health care services for individuals and populations. The editorial boards' ability to efficiently recognize and share the global importance of health literacy with a variety of stakeholders. Auctoresonline publishing platform can be used to facilitate of optimal client-based services and should be added to health care professionals' repertoire of evidence-based health care resources.
Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Intervention The submission and review process was adequate. However I think that the publication total value should have been enlightened in early fases. Thank you for all.
Journal of Women Health Care and Issues By the present mail, I want to say thank to you and tour colleagues for facilitating my published article. Specially thank you for the peer review process, support from the editorial office. I appreciate positively the quality of your journal.
Journal of Clinical Research and Reports I would be very delighted to submit my testimonial regarding the reviewer board and the editorial office. The reviewer board were accurate and helpful regarding any modifications for my manuscript. And the editorial office were very helpful and supportive in contacting and monitoring with any update and offering help. It was my pleasure to contribute with your promising Journal and I am looking forward for more collaboration.
We would like to thank the Journal of Thoracic Disease and Cardiothoracic Surgery because of the services they provided us for our articles. The peer-review process was done in a very excellent time manner, and the opinions of the reviewers helped us to improve our manuscript further. The editorial office had an outstanding correspondence with us and guided us in many ways. During a hard time of the pandemic that is affecting every one of us tremendously, the editorial office helped us make everything easier for publishing scientific work. Hope for a more scientific relationship with your Journal.
The peer-review process which consisted high quality queries on the paper. I did answer six reviewers’ questions and comments before the paper was accepted. The support from the editorial office is excellent.
Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. I had the experience of publishing a research article recently. The whole process was simple from submission to publication. The reviewers made specific and valuable recommendations and corrections that improved the quality of my publication. I strongly recommend this Journal.
Dr. Katarzyna Byczkowska My testimonial covering: "The peer review process is quick and effective. The support from the editorial office is very professional and friendly. Quality of the Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on cardiology that is useful for other professionals in the field.
Thank you most sincerely, with regard to the support you have given in relation to the reviewing process and the processing of my article entitled "Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of The Prostate Gland: A Review and Update" for publication in your esteemed Journal, Journal of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics". The editorial team has been very supportive.
Testimony of Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology: work with your Reviews has been a educational and constructive experience. The editorial office were very helpful and supportive. It was a pleasure to contribute to your Journal.
Dr. Bernard Terkimbi Utoo, I am happy to publish my scientific work in Journal of Women Health Care and Issues (JWHCI). The manuscript submission was seamless and peer review process was top notch. I was amazed that 4 reviewers worked on the manuscript which made it a highly technical, standard and excellent quality paper. I appreciate the format and consideration for the APC as well as the speed of publication. It is my pleasure to continue with this scientific relationship with the esteem JWHCI.
This is an acknowledgment for peer reviewers, editorial board of Journal of Clinical Research and Reports. They show a lot of consideration for us as publishers for our research article “Evaluation of the different factors associated with side effects of COVID-19 vaccination on medical students, Mutah university, Al-Karak, Jordan”, in a very professional and easy way. This journal is one of outstanding medical journal.
Dear Hao Jiang, to Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing We greatly appreciate the efficient, professional and rapid processing of our paper by your team. If there is anything else we should do, please do not hesitate to let us know. On behalf of my co-authors, we would like to express our great appreciation to editor and reviewers.
As an author who has recently published in the journal "Brain and Neurological Disorders". I am delighted to provide a testimonial on the peer review process, editorial office support, and the overall quality of the journal. The peer review process at Brain and Neurological Disorders is rigorous and meticulous, ensuring that only high-quality, evidence-based research is published. The reviewers are experts in their fields, and their comments and suggestions were constructive and helped improve the quality of my manuscript. The review process was timely and efficient, with clear communication from the editorial office at each stage. The support from the editorial office was exceptional throughout the entire process. The editorial staff was responsive, professional, and always willing to help. They provided valuable guidance on formatting, structure, and ethical considerations, making the submission process seamless. Moreover, they kept me informed about the status of my manuscript and provided timely updates, which made the process less stressful. The journal Brain and Neurological Disorders is of the highest quality, with a strong focus on publishing cutting-edge research in the field of neurology. The articles published in this journal are well-researched, rigorously peer-reviewed, and written by experts in the field. The journal maintains high standards, ensuring that readers are provided with the most up-to-date and reliable information on brain and neurological disorders. In conclusion, I had a wonderful experience publishing in Brain and Neurological Disorders. The peer review process was thorough, the editorial office provided exceptional support, and the journal's quality is second to none. I would highly recommend this journal to any researcher working in the field of neurology and brain disorders.
Dear Agrippa Hilda, Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery, Editorial Coordinator, I trust this message finds you well. I want to extend my appreciation for considering my article for publication in your esteemed journal. I am pleased to provide a testimonial regarding the peer review process and the support received from your editorial office. The peer review process for my paper was carried out in a highly professional and thorough manner. The feedback and comments provided by the authors were constructive and very useful in improving the quality of the manuscript. This rigorous assessment process undoubtedly contributes to the high standards maintained by your journal.
International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. I strongly recommend to consider submitting your work to this high-quality journal. The support and availability of the Editorial staff is outstanding and the review process was both efficient and rigorous.
Thank you very much for publishing my Research Article titled “Comparing Treatment Outcome Of Allergic Rhinitis Patients After Using Fluticasone Nasal Spray And Nasal Douching" in the Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology. As Medical Professionals we are immensely benefited from study of various informative Articles and Papers published in this high quality Journal. I look forward to enriching my knowledge by regular study of the Journal and contribute my future work in the field of ENT through the Journal for use by the medical fraternity. The support from the Editorial office was excellent and very prompt. I also welcome the comments received from the readers of my Research Article.
Dear Erica Kelsey, Editorial Coordinator of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics Our team is very satisfied with the processing of our paper by your journal. That was fast, efficient, rigorous, but without unnecessary complications. We appreciated the very short time between the submission of the paper and its publication on line on your site.
I am very glad to say that the peer review process is very successful and fast and support from the Editorial Office. Therefore, I would like to continue our scientific relationship for a long time. And I especially thank you for your kindly attention towards my article. Have a good day!
"We recently published an article entitled “Influence of beta-Cyclodextrins upon the Degradation of Carbofuran Derivatives under Alkaline Conditions" in the Journal of “Pesticides and Biofertilizers” to show that the cyclodextrins protect the carbamates increasing their half-life time in the presence of basic conditions This will be very helpful to understand carbofuran behaviour in the analytical, agro-environmental and food areas. We greatly appreciated the interaction with the editor and the editorial team; we were particularly well accompanied during the course of the revision process, since all various steps towards publication were short and without delay".
I would like to express my gratitude towards you process of article review and submission. I found this to be very fair and expedient. Your follow up has been excellent. I have many publications in national and international journal and your process has been one of the best so far. Keep up the great work.
We are grateful for this opportunity to provide a glowing recommendation to the Journal of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. We found that the editorial team were very supportive, helpful, kept us abreast of timelines and over all very professional in nature. The peer review process was rigorous, efficient and constructive that really enhanced our article submission. The experience with this journal remains one of our best ever and we look forward to providing future submissions in the near future.
I am very pleased to serve as EBM of the journal, I hope many years of my experience in stem cells can help the journal from one way or another. As we know, stem cells hold great potential for regenerative medicine, which are mostly used to promote the repair response of diseased, dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives. I think Stem Cell Research and Therapeutics International is a great platform to publish and share the understanding towards the biology and translational or clinical application of stem cells.
I would like to give my testimony in the support I have got by the peer review process and to support the editorial office where they were of asset to support young author like me to be encouraged to publish their work in your respected journal and globalize and share knowledge across the globe. I really give my great gratitude to your journal and the peer review including the editorial office.
I am delighted to publish our manuscript entitled "A Perspective on Cocaine Induced Stroke - Its Mechanisms and Management" in the Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. The peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal are excellent. The manuscripts published are of high quality and of excellent scientific value. I recommend this journal very much to colleagues.
Dr.Tania Muñoz, My experience as researcher and author of a review article in The Journal Clinical Cardiology and Interventions has been very enriching and stimulating. The editorial team is excellent, performs its work with absolute responsibility and delivery. They are proactive, dynamic and receptive to all proposals. Supporting at all times the vast universe of authors who choose them as an option for publication. The team of review specialists, members of the editorial board, are brilliant professionals, with remarkable performance in medical research and scientific methodology. Together they form a frontline team that consolidates the JCCI as a magnificent option for the publication and review of high-level medical articles and broad collective interest. I am honored to be able to share my review article and open to receive all your comments.
“The peer review process of JPMHC is quick and effective. Authors are benefited by good and professional reviewers with huge experience in the field of psychology and mental health. The support from the editorial office is very professional. People to contact to are friendly and happy to help and assist any query authors might have. Quality of the Journal is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on mental health that is useful for other professionals in the field”.
Dear editorial department: On behalf of our team, I hereby certify the reliability and superiority of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews in the peer review process, editorial support, and journal quality. Firstly, the peer review process of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is rigorous, fair, transparent, fast, and of high quality. The editorial department invites experts from relevant fields as anonymous reviewers to review all submitted manuscripts. These experts have rich academic backgrounds and experience, and can accurately evaluate the academic quality, originality, and suitability of manuscripts. The editorial department is committed to ensuring the rigor of the peer review process, while also making every effort to ensure a fast review cycle to meet the needs of authors and the academic community. Secondly, the editorial team of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is composed of a group of senior scholars and professionals with rich experience and professional knowledge in related fields. The editorial department is committed to assisting authors in improving their manuscripts, ensuring their academic accuracy, clarity, and completeness. Editors actively collaborate with authors, providing useful suggestions and feedback to promote the improvement and development of the manuscript. We believe that the support of the editorial department is one of the key factors in ensuring the quality of the journal. Finally, the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is renowned for its high- quality articles and strict academic standards. The editorial department is committed to publishing innovative and academically valuable research results to promote the development and progress of related fields. The International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is reasonably priced and ensures excellent service and quality ratio, allowing authors to obtain high-level academic publishing opportunities in an affordable manner. I hereby solemnly declare that the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews has a high level of credibility and superiority in terms of peer review process, editorial support, reasonable fees, and journal quality. Sincerely, Rui Tao.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions I testity the covering of the peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, we deeply appreciate the interest shown in our work and its publication. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you. The peer review process, as well as the support provided by the editorial office, have been exceptional, and the quality of the journal is very high, which was a determining factor in our decision to publish with you.
The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews journal clinically in the future time.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude for the trust placed in our team for the publication in your journal. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you on this project. I am pleased to inform you that both the peer review process and the attention from the editorial coordination have been excellent. Your team has worked with dedication and professionalism to ensure that your publication meets the highest standards of quality. We are confident that this collaboration will result in mutual success, and we are eager to see the fruits of this shared effort.
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I hope this message finds you well. I want to express my utmost gratitude for your excellent work and for the dedication and speed in the publication process of my article titled "Navigating Innovation: Qualitative Insights on Using Technology for Health Education in Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients." I am very satisfied with the peer review process, the support from the editorial office, and the quality of the journal. I hope we can maintain our scientific relationship in the long term.
Dear Monica Gissare, - Editorial Coordinator of Nutrition and Food Processing. ¨My testimony with you is truly professional, with a positive response regarding the follow-up of the article and its review, you took into account my qualities and the importance of the topic¨.
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, The review process for the article “The Handling of Anti-aggregants and Anticoagulants in the Oncologic Heart Patient Submitted to Surgery” was extremely rigorous and detailed. From the initial submission to the final acceptance, the editorial team at the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” demonstrated a high level of professionalism and dedication. The reviewers provided constructive and detailed feedback, which was essential for improving the quality of our work. Communication was always clear and efficient, ensuring that all our questions were promptly addressed. The quality of the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” is undeniable. It is a peer-reviewed, open-access publication dedicated exclusively to disseminating high-quality research in the field of clinical cardiology and cardiovascular interventions. The journal's impact factor is currently under evaluation, and it is indexed in reputable databases, which further reinforces its credibility and relevance in the scientific field. I highly recommend this journal to researchers looking for a reputable platform to publish their studies.
Dear Editorial Coordinator of the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing! "I would like to thank the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing for including and publishing my article. The peer review process was very quick, movement and precise. The Editorial Board has done an extremely conscientious job with much help, valuable comments and advices. I find the journal very valuable from a professional point of view, thank you very much for allowing me to be part of it and I would like to participate in the future!”
Dealing with The Journal of Neurology and Neurological Surgery was very smooth and comprehensive. The office staff took time to address my needs and the response from editors and the office was prompt and fair. I certainly hope to publish with this journal again.Their professionalism is apparent and more than satisfactory. Susan Weiner
My Testimonial Covering as fellowing: Lin-Show Chin. The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
My experience publishing in Psychology and Mental Health Care was exceptional. The peer review process was rigorous and constructive, with reviewers providing valuable insights that helped enhance the quality of our work. The editorial team was highly supportive and responsive, making the submission process smooth and efficient. The journal's commitment to high standards and academic rigor makes it a respected platform for quality research. I am grateful for the opportunity to publish in such a reputable journal.
My experience publishing in International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews was exceptional. I Come forth to Provide a Testimonial Covering the Peer Review Process and the editorial office for the Professional and Impartial Evaluation of the Manuscript.
I would like to offer my testimony in the support. I have received through the peer review process and support the editorial office where they are to support young authors like me, encourage them to publish their work in your esteemed journals, and globalize and share knowledge globally. I really appreciate your journal, peer review, and editorial office.
Dear Agrippa Hilda- Editorial Coordinator of Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery, "The peer review process was very quick and of high quality, which can also be seen in the articles in the journal. The collaboration with the editorial office was very good."
I would like to express my sincere gratitude for the support and efficiency provided by the editorial office throughout the publication process of my article, “Delayed Vulvar Metastases from Rectal Carcinoma: A Case Report.” I greatly appreciate the assistance and guidance I received from your team, which made the entire process smooth and efficient. The peer review process was thorough and constructive, contributing to the overall quality of the final article. I am very grateful for the high level of professionalism and commitment shown by the editorial staff, and I look forward to maintaining a long-term collaboration with the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
To Dear Erin Aust, I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation for the opportunity to have my work published in this esteemed journal. The entire publication process was smooth and well-organized, and I am extremely satisfied with the final result. The Editorial Team demonstrated the utmost professionalism, providing prompt and insightful feedback throughout the review process. Their clear communication and constructive suggestions were invaluable in enhancing my manuscript, and their meticulous attention to detail and dedication to quality are truly commendable. Additionally, the support from the Editorial Office was exceptional. From the initial submission to the final publication, I was guided through every step of the process with great care and professionalism. The team's responsiveness and assistance made the entire experience both easy and stress-free. I am also deeply impressed by the quality and reputation of the journal. It is an honor to have my research featured in such a respected publication, and I am confident that it will make a meaningful contribution to the field.
"I am grateful for the opportunity of contributing to [International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews] and for the rigorous review process that enhances the quality of research published in your esteemed journal. I sincerely appreciate the time and effort of your team who have dedicatedly helped me in improvising changes and modifying my manuscript. The insightful comments and constructive feedback provided have been invaluable in refining and strengthening my work".
I thank the ‘Journal of Clinical Research and Reports’ for accepting this article for publication. This is a rigorously peer reviewed journal which is on all major global scientific data bases. I note the review process was prompt, thorough and professionally critical. It gave us an insight into a number of important scientific/statistical issues. The review prompted us to review the relevant literature again and look at the limitations of the study. The peer reviewers were open, clear in the instructions and the editorial team was very prompt in their communication. This journal certainly publishes quality research articles. I would recommend the journal for any future publications.
Dear Jessica Magne, with gratitude for the joint work. Fast process of receiving and processing the submitted scientific materials in “Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions”. High level of competence of the editors with clear and correct recommendations and ideas for enriching the article.
We found the peer review process quick and positive in its input. The support from the editorial officer has been very agile, always with the intention of improving the article and taking into account our subsequent corrections.
