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Research Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2688-7517/231
Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus, Lucknow- 226010, (Uttar Pradesh) India.
*Corresponding Author: Jaya Pandey and Smriti Khare, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus, Lucknow- 226010, (Uttar Pradesh) India.
Citation: Anjali Singh, Jaya Pandey, Richa Khare and Smriti Khare, (2025), Chromium Contamination in the Ganga River Near Kanpur: A Comprehensive Water Quality Assessment Using Experimental Analysis and Analytical Methods in Chemistry, J. Pharmaceutics and Pharmacology Research, 8(1); DOI:10.31579/2688-7517/231
Copyright: © 2025, Jaya Pandey and Smriti Khare. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 09 April 2025 | Accepted: 17 April 2025 | Published: 24 April 2025
Keywords: water quality assessment; chromium contamination; total dissolved solids; conductivity; hexavalent chromium; industrial pollution; tannery effluents
Water pollution, driven by industrial contaminants, poses significant threats to ecosystems and human health. The present study investigates the water quality assessment of chromium contamination in the River near Kanpur, with a focus on the industrial impact of tannery effluents. Various physicochemical parameters such as pH, conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), and hexavalent chromium (Cr (VI)) were analyzed using standard analytical techniques. pH and conductivity were measured using electrochemical probes, while TDS was determined using both gravimetric and instrumental methods. The concentration of hexavalent chromium was quantified using UV-Vis spectrophotometry with 1,5-Diphenylcarbazide (DPC) reagent at 540 nm. Quality control measures, including triplicate analysis, instrument calibration with standard solutions, and statistical validation, ensured the accuracy and reliability of the data. The findings revealed elevated chromium levels in several locations, highlighting significant industrial pollution and potential health hazards. This study underscores the need for continuous monitoring and effective wastewater treatment strategies to mitigate chromium contamination in the river.
Industrial pollution is a growing concern in India, particularly in cities like Kanpur, where industrial activities significantly impact the environment. Kanpur, a major industrial hub in Uttar Pradesh, is known for its large tannery industry, which plays a vital role in the region's economy [1-5]. The tanning process involves the extensive use of chemicals, including chromium, sulfides, and various organic compounds, which are often discharged into local water bodies. These pollutants not only degrade water quality but also pose serious risks to aquatic ecosystems and human health.
| Tannery Process | Key Chemicals Used | Waste Generated |
| Pre-tanning | Lime, Sodium sulfide, Sodium hydroxide | Hair, flesh residues, alkaline waste |
| Pickling | Sulfuric acid, Hydrochloric acid, Salt | Acidic effluents, salt brine |
| Tanning | Chromium salts (chromium sulfate), Vegetable tannins, Aldehydes (e.g., glutaraldehyde) | Chromium-laden sludge, residual tanning agents |
| Post-tanning | Oils, Dyes, Fatliquors (e.g., tallow, synthetic oils) | Used oils, dye effluents |
| Finishing | Acrylics, Polyurethanes, Resins | Chemical residues, VOC emissions |
| Wet finishing | Dyes, Pigments, Surfactants | Dye-laden wastewater, surfactant residues |
| Wastewater Treatment | Coagulating agents (e.g., alum), Activated carbon, Biological agents | Treated sludge, effluent water |
Table 1: Tannery Processes, Chemicals Used, and Waste Generated
The release of untreated or inadequately treated effluents from tanneries into the Ganga River and its tributaries has led to severe contamination, making it imperative to develop robust methods for monitoring and predicting water quality. Traditional methods of water quality assessment, which rely on periodic sampling and chemical analysis, are time-consuming, expensive, and often insufficient to capture real-time fluctuations in pollution levels [7-8].
Water pollution caused by industrial effluents, particularly from the tannery sector, has been widely studied due to its significant environmental and public health impacts. Numerous studies have highlighted the adverse effects of chemical pollutants such as chromium, sulfides, and organic compounds, commonly found in tannery wastewater, on water bodies. Tannery effluents not only reduce the availability of clean water but also lead to bioaccumulation of toxic substances in aquatic ecosystems, affecting biodiversity and posing health risks to local communities [9]. Traditional water quality monitoring methods, while effective in detecting contamination, often struggle to keep pace with rapid industrial growth and the dynamic nature of water pollution, necessitating the exploration of more advanced monitoring solutions.
| Industry | Location | Polluted Water Area | Main Pollutants |
| Kanpur Tannery & Leather Products | Jajmau | Ganga River (near Jajmau) | Chromium, sulfides, tannins, heavy metals |
| Dhananjay Tannery | Panki | Ganga River (near Panki) | Chromium, ammonia, sulfides |
K.K. Tannery Leather Processing Units | Rania (near Kanpur) | Kali River | Chromium, phenols, biological oxygen demand (BOD) |
| Kanpur Tannery & Chemical Works | Unnao Road | Bithoor Ghat on Ganga River | Heavy metals, tannins, total dissolved solids (TDS) |
| V.B. Tannery | Kanpur Nagar | Sirsaha Nala | Heavy metals, organic pollutants, nitrates |
Jayant Tannery Leather Goods Manufacturing Units | Industrial Estate, Kanpur | Naubasta Nala | Chromium, COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand), BOD |
Table 2: Industries Contributing to Water Pollution in Kanpur City, India, Due to Tannery Operations
| Contaminant | Source | Potential Environmental Impact |
| Chromium (Cr) | Chrome tanning process | Toxic to aquatic life, bioaccumulation, carcinogenic to humans |
| Sulfides (H₂S, Na₂S) | Dehairing and unhairing stages | Releases hydrogen sulfide gas, toxic to aquatic organisms, odorous |
| Ammonia (NH₃) | Deliming and bating processes | Eutrophication, toxicity to fish and aquatic species |
| Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) | General effluent from processing | Reduces water quality, affects aquatic ecosystems |
| Suspended Solids (SS) | Fleshing, trimming, and tanning operations | Reduces light penetration, affects aquatic plant growth, sedimentation |
| Chlorides | Salt used in rawhide preservation | Increases salinity, toxic to freshwater species |
| Organic Matter (BOD/COD) | Fleshing, soaking, and degreasing | Oxygen depletion in water bodies, affecting aquatic life |
| Phenolic Compounds | Leather processing chemicals | Toxic to aquatic organisms, potential endocrine disruptors |
| Formaldehyde | Leather finishing processes | Carcinogenic, toxic to both humans and aquatic life |
| Solvents and Dyes | Dyeing and finishing stages | Toxic to aquatic organisms, potential bioaccumulation |
| Phosphates | Chemical soaking and degreasing | Eutrophication, leading to algal blooms and aquatic oxygen depletion |
| Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄) | Pickling and pH adjustment stages | Acidification of water bodies, harmful to aquatic ecosystems |
Table 3: Common Industrial Contaminants from Tannery Industries, Their Sources, and Environmental Impacts
Study Area
The study focuses on the industrial region of Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India, particularly the tannery industry located along the banks of the Ganga River from Lucknow to Kanpur. The region is known for its large concentration of tanneries that discharge significant amounts of effluent, contributing to water pollution. Data were collected from water bodies surrounding the industrial zones, where tannery effluents are regularly discharged, leading to contamination with chemicals like chromium, sulfides, and other organic pollutants [10]. The study focuses on the industrial region of Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India, particularly the tannery industry located along the banks of the Ganga River from Lucknow to Kanpur. Water samples were collected from nine key locations, including Ganga Barrage, Jajmau, Shuklaganj, Panki. Ninesampling locations along the Ganga River from Lucknow to Kanpur, particularly in industrial and urban zones where chromium contamination is likely due to tannery and other industrial activities were taken for study.
These locations ensure a comprehensive upstream-to-downstream analysis of chromium contamination along the Ganga River from Lucknow to Kanpur, covering rural, urban, and industrially impacted regions
These sites were selected based on their proximity to industrial discharge points, urban settlements, and agricultural runoff areas to assess variations in chromium contamination levels. Jajmau, known for its dense cluster of tanneries, is a critical hotspot for heavy metal pollution, whereas Panki and Naubasta are major industrial hubs contributing to effluent discharge. Shuklaganj and Rania, being semi-urban areas, experience mixed pollution sources, while Fazalganj and Dada Nagar are influenced by small-scale industries. Barra, a residential and industrial transition zone, reflects cumulative pollution effects. By analyzing water quality across these diverse locations, the study provides a comprehensive understanding of chromium contamination patterns and their potential environmental and health impacts.
Methodology
The determination of chromium in water samples from the Ganga River near Lucknow was carried out using standard analytical chemistry techniques. Water samples were collected from multiple locations along the river, ensuring proper sampling protocols to prevent contamination. The samples were first subjected to filtration to remove suspended particles, followed by acid digestion using concentrated nitric acid (HNO₃) to stabilize chromium species. The total chromium concentration was determined using UV-Vis spectrophotometry through a colorimetric method involving diphenylcarbazide, which forms a purple complex with Cr (VI) in acidic conditions, allowing quantification at a wavelength of 540 nm. The pH, conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), and other physicochemical parameters were also analyzed to understand the water quality impact. Standard calibration curves were prepared using known chromium solutions to ensure accuracy. The obtained data were statistically analyzed to assess contamination levels and potential environmental risks associated with chromium pollution in the river. To ensure the accuracy and precision of the results, triplicate analyses were performed for each water quality parameter. Blank and standard solutions were used to validate the calibration of instruments before sample measurements. Additionally, statistical analysis, including the calculation of standard deviation and relative standard deviation (RSD), was conducted to assess the reliability and reproducibility of the data. These quality control measures helped minimize errors and enhance the validity of the experimental findings.
Experimental Method
The determination of chromium contamination and water quality parameters in the Ganga River near Kanpur was carried out using standardized analytical methods [11-15]. The study involved the collection of water samples from nine different locations, followed by laboratory analysis for physicochemical parameters and chromium concentration. Each parameter was measured using a specific experimental procedure, as detailed below. The following methodology for the determination of chromium contamination and other water quality parameters in the River near Kanpur was conducted.
1. Sample Collection and Preservation
Water samples were collected in pre-cleaned polyethylene bottles from nine designated locations along the Ganga River. The samples were collected at a depth of approximately 30 cm below the surface to avoid surface contamination [16]. For chromium analysis, samples were acidified to pH < 2>
2. Determination of pH
Digital pH meter (Calibrated using standard buffer solutions of pH 4.0, 7.0, and 10.0) instrument was used.For the determination of pH, 50 mL of the water sample was taken in a clean beaker. The pH electrode was then immersed into the sample, and the reading was recorded after stabilization. To ensure accuracy, the measurement was repeated three times, and the average value was considered for analysis.
3. Measurement of Conductivity
For the measurement of conductivity, a conductivity meter calibrated using a KCl solution was used. 50 mL of the water sample was taken in a clean beaker, and the conductivity probe was carefully inserted into the sample. The reading was allowed to stabilize, and the conductivity value was recorded in µS/cm.
4. Determination of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
For the determination of total dissolved solids (TDS) using the gravimetric method, a known volume (50 mL) of the water sample was carefully measured and filtered through a pre-weighed Whatman filter paper to remove suspended solids. The filtrate was then transferred to a clean, pre-weighed evaporating dish and heated at 105°C in a hot air oven until complete evaporation of water occurred. The dish was then cooled in a desiccator and weighed again. The increase in weight represented the mass of dissolved solids, and the TDS concentration (mg/L) was calculated using the formula:
TDS (mg/L) = Final weight of dish−Initial weight of dish Volume of sample (L)
This method provided an accurate determination of the total dissolved solids in the water samples.
5. Determination of Hexavalent Chromium (Cr (VI)) Using UV-Vis Spectrophotometry
For the determination of hexavalent chromium (Cr (VI)), UV-Vis spectrophotometry was employed using 1,5-Diphenylcarbazide (DPC) reagent in an acidic medium [17]. A standard calibration curve was first prepared using known Cr (VI) solutions ranging from 0.01 to 0.1 mg/L. For sample analysis, 10 mL of the water sample was transferred into a clean test tube, followed by the addition of 1 mL of 1,5-Diphenylcarbazide (DPC) reagent and 2 mL of 0.2N sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). The solution was mixed thoroughly and allowed to react for 10 minutes, during which a stable purple color developed due to the formation of a Cr-DPC complex. The absorbance of the resulting solution was then measured at 540 nm using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The concentration of hexavalent chromium in the water sample was determined by comparing the absorbance values with the previously established standard calibration curve.
The pH and physicochemical parameters were measured using a pH meter and conductivity meter. The Cr(VI) concentration was determined using the diphenylcarbazide colorimetric method at 540 nm. Total chromium was measured using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). Higher chromium concentrations were observed near industrial discharge areas, indicating potential anthropogenic pollution sources [18].
| Sample Location | pH | Conductivity (µS/cm) | TDS (mg/L) | Cr(VI) Concentration (mg/L) (UV-Vis Method) | Total Chromium (mg/L) (AAS Method) |
| Site 1 (Upstream) | 7.2 | 520 | 310 | 0.015 | 0.032 |
| Site 2 (Industrial Discharge) | 6.5 | 780 | 450 | 0.087 | 0.135 |
| Site 3 (Midstream) | 6.8 | 690 | 410 | 0.062 | 0.102 |
| Site 4 (Downstream) | 6.3 | 850 | 500 | 0.095 | 0.150 |
| Site 5 (Agricultural Zone) | 7.0 | 600 | 370 | 0.040 | 0.085 |
Table 4: Observations for Chromium Determination in Water Samples from the Ganga River (Kanpur)
The analysis of water samples from nine locations along the Ganga River near Kanpur revealed significant variations in chromium contamination, particularly in areas with high industrial activity. The pH levels ranged from 6.3 to 7.2, with lower values observed near industrial discharge points such as Jajmau and Naubasta, indicating slight acidity due to tannery effluents. Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) were notably higher in these areas, with conductivity values reaching up to 850 µS/cm and TDS levels peaking at 500 mg/L, suggesting increased ion concentration from industrial and municipal wastewater discharge.
The chromium (Cr) concentrations varied significantly across different sites. The UV-Vis spectrophotometric method detected Cr (VI) levels ranging from 0.015 mg/L in upstream locations to 0.095 mg/L in highly polluted regions such as Jajmau and Downstream Kanpur. The total chromium concentration determined by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) followed a similar trend, with values ranging from 0.032 mg/L to 0.150 mg/L, exceeding the permissible limit of 0.05 mg/L set by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for drinking water in several locations.
The highest chromium levels were detected in industrial zones such as Jajmau, Panki, and Naubasta, where tannery and metal processing industries are dominant. The presence of elevated Cr(VI) concentrations in these locations is particularly concerning due to its high toxicity, carcinogenicity, and ability to bioaccumulate in aquatic ecosystems. Midstream and downstream sites, including Fazalganj and Barra, also showed moderate chromium levels, suggesting cumulative pollution effects as the river flows through industrial and urban settlements. In contrast, upstream locations such as Ganga Barrage and Shuklaganj exhibited relatively lower chromium contamination, indicating lesser industrial influence.
The correlation between chromium levels and physicochemical parameters such as pH, conductivity, and TDS highlights the role of industrial effluents in increasing water contamination. The acidic nature of the water at highly polluted sites suggests that chromium is likely present in its more toxic hexavalent form, which is more soluble and mobile in aquatic environments. The presence of chromium in agricultural zones such as Rania indicates possible leaching from industrial discharge and improper waste disposal practices, posing risks to groundwater and irrigation sources.
These findings emphasize the urgent need for effective wastewater treatment measures, stricter industrial effluent regulations, and regular monitoring of heavy metals in the Ganga River to mitigate environmental and public health risks. The study also underscores the importance of alternative remediation strategies, such as phytoremediation and adsorption techniques, to reduce chromium contamination in water bodies affected by industrial pollution
The study provides a comprehensive assessment of chromium contamination in the Ganga River near Kanpur, highlighting the significant impact of industrial effluents, particularly from the tannery sector. The analysis of water samples from nine key locations revealed that chromium levels, especially in industrial hotspots like Jajmau, Panki, and Naubasta, exceeded permissible limits set by WHO and BIS, posing serious environmental and health concerns. The correlation between high chromium concentrations and elevated conductivity, TDS, and slightly acidic pH values suggests substantial pollution from industrial discharges.
The findings underscore the urgent need for stricter enforcement of wastewater treatment regulations, improved industrial effluent management, and the adoption of sustainable remediation technologies such as phytoremediation and advanced filtration techniques. Continuous monitoring of heavy metals in the Ganga River is essential to prevent further environmental degradation and safeguard public health. Future research should focus on the long-term impact of chromium contamination on aquatic ecosystems and potential mitigation strategies to restore water quality in the affected regions.
The implications of this study extend beyond academic inquiry, offering valuable insights for policymakers and environmental agencies aiming to mitigate the impact of industrial pollution. By leveraging machine learning algorithms, stakeholders can enhance their decision-making processes, improve water quality management, and implement timely interventions to safeguard public health and the environment. The integration of advanced data analytics and machine learning in water quality assessment provides a robust framework for addressing the complexities of industrial pollution. This research paves the way for future studies to explore the application of these methodologies in diverse contexts and emphasizes the importance of continued innovation in environmental monitoring and management practices.
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My Testimonial Covering as fellowing: Lin-Show Chin. The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
My experience publishing in Psychology and Mental Health Care was exceptional. The peer review process was rigorous and constructive, with reviewers providing valuable insights that helped enhance the quality of our work. The editorial team was highly supportive and responsive, making the submission process smooth and efficient. The journal's commitment to high standards and academic rigor makes it a respected platform for quality research. I am grateful for the opportunity to publish in such a reputable journal.
My experience publishing in International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews was exceptional. I Come forth to Provide a Testimonial Covering the Peer Review Process and the editorial office for the Professional and Impartial Evaluation of the Manuscript.
I would like to offer my testimony in the support. I have received through the peer review process and support the editorial office where they are to support young authors like me, encourage them to publish their work in your esteemed journals, and globalize and share knowledge globally. I really appreciate your journal, peer review, and editorial office.
Dear Agrippa Hilda- Editorial Coordinator of Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery, "The peer review process was very quick and of high quality, which can also be seen in the articles in the journal. The collaboration with the editorial office was very good."
I would like to express my sincere gratitude for the support and efficiency provided by the editorial office throughout the publication process of my article, “Delayed Vulvar Metastases from Rectal Carcinoma: A Case Report.” I greatly appreciate the assistance and guidance I received from your team, which made the entire process smooth and efficient. The peer review process was thorough and constructive, contributing to the overall quality of the final article. I am very grateful for the high level of professionalism and commitment shown by the editorial staff, and I look forward to maintaining a long-term collaboration with the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
To Dear Erin Aust, I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation for the opportunity to have my work published in this esteemed journal. The entire publication process was smooth and well-organized, and I am extremely satisfied with the final result. The Editorial Team demonstrated the utmost professionalism, providing prompt and insightful feedback throughout the review process. Their clear communication and constructive suggestions were invaluable in enhancing my manuscript, and their meticulous attention to detail and dedication to quality are truly commendable. Additionally, the support from the Editorial Office was exceptional. From the initial submission to the final publication, I was guided through every step of the process with great care and professionalism. The team's responsiveness and assistance made the entire experience both easy and stress-free. I am also deeply impressed by the quality and reputation of the journal. It is an honor to have my research featured in such a respected publication, and I am confident that it will make a meaningful contribution to the field.
"I am grateful for the opportunity of contributing to [International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews] and for the rigorous review process that enhances the quality of research published in your esteemed journal. I sincerely appreciate the time and effort of your team who have dedicatedly helped me in improvising changes and modifying my manuscript. The insightful comments and constructive feedback provided have been invaluable in refining and strengthening my work".
I thank the ‘Journal of Clinical Research and Reports’ for accepting this article for publication. This is a rigorously peer reviewed journal which is on all major global scientific data bases. I note the review process was prompt, thorough and professionally critical. It gave us an insight into a number of important scientific/statistical issues. The review prompted us to review the relevant literature again and look at the limitations of the study. The peer reviewers were open, clear in the instructions and the editorial team was very prompt in their communication. This journal certainly publishes quality research articles. I would recommend the journal for any future publications.
Dear Jessica Magne, with gratitude for the joint work. Fast process of receiving and processing the submitted scientific materials in “Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions”. High level of competence of the editors with clear and correct recommendations and ideas for enriching the article.
We found the peer review process quick and positive in its input. The support from the editorial officer has been very agile, always with the intention of improving the article and taking into account our subsequent corrections.
My article, titled 'No Way Out of the Smartphone Epidemic Without Considering the Insights of Brain Research,' has been republished in the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. The review process was seamless and professional, with the editors being both friendly and supportive. I am deeply grateful for their efforts.
To Dear Erin Aust – Editorial Coordinator of Journal of General Medicine and Clinical Practice! I declare that I am absolutely satisfied with your work carried out with great competence in following the manuscript during the various stages from its receipt, during the revision process to the final acceptance for publication. Thank Prof. Elvira Farina
Dear Jessica, and the super professional team of the ‘Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions’ I am sincerely grateful to the coordinated work of the journal team for the no problem with the submission of my manuscript: “Cardiometabolic Disorders in A Pregnant Woman with Severe Preeclampsia on the Background of Morbid Obesity (Case Report).” The review process by 5 experts was fast, and the comments were professional, which made it more specific and academic, and the process of publication and presentation of the article was excellent. I recommend that my colleagues publish articles in this journal, and I am interested in further scientific cooperation. Sincerely and best wishes, Dr. Oleg Golyanovskiy.
