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Research Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2766-2314/149.
*Corresponding Author: Nida Tabassum khan, Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences & Informatics, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences, Takatu Campus, Airport Road, Quetta, Balochistan.
Citation: Yusra Gulzar, Nida Tabassum khan (2025), Biodegradation of Plastics by Fungi Journal of Biotechnology and Bioprocessing, 6(1): 10.31579/2766-2314/149.
Copyright: © 2025, Nida Tabassum khan. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 02 May 2025 | Accepted: 16 May 2025 | Published: 31 May 2025
Keywords:
Uncontrolled utilization of plastics for different purposes, for example, bundling, transportation, industry and farming in country just as metropolitan zones, has raised significant issue of plastic garbage removal and its contamination. Plastic yearly creation has outperformed the 300 million tons. Plastic causes contamination and an Earth-wide temperature boost not just on account of expansion in the issue of garbage removal and land filling yet in addition discharge CO2 and dioxins because of copying. Various efforts have been made to recognize and disengage microorganisms fit for using engineered polymers in a base development medium, was assessed, in light of the evaluated mass contrasts in both the organism and the miniature plastic pellets utilized and Results demonstrated that, under the tried conditions, Z. maritimum is equipped for using PE, bringing about the decline, in both mass and size, of the pellets. These outcomes demonstrate that this normally happening growth may effectively add to the biodegradation of micro plastics, requiring least supplements. The fungal biomass in soils by and large surpasses the bacterial biomass and hence almost certainly, fungi may assume a significant part in degradation of plastics, similarly as they prevalently play out the decay of natural issue in the dirt environment. Generally utilized techniques for plastic removal were end up being deficient for successful plastic waste administration, and subsequently there is developing worry for utilization of effective microorganisms implied for biodegradation of non-degradable manufactured polymer. The biodegradable polymers are intended to degrade quick by microorganisms due their capacity to degrade the vast majority of the natural and inorganic materials, including lignin, starch, cellulose and hemicelluloses the utilization of biodegradable plastics for certain applications, for example, bundling or wellbeing industry is a promising and appealing alternative for monetary, ecological, and medical advantages. The present review examines the current status, instruments of biodegradation of plastics, methods for describing degraded plastics and future possibilities for plastics degradation by Fungi.
The word plastic originates from the Greek word "plastikos", which signifies 'ready to be formed into shifted shapes. Plastic is comprised of carbon, hydrogen, silicon, oxygen, chloride and nitrogen. For extraction of the fundamental materials of plastics oil, coal and petroleum gas are utilized. Plastics are comprised of connecting of monomers together by synthetic bonds.(Kale, Deshmukh, Dudhare, & Patil, 2015)Worldwide manufactured plastic creation is 140 million tons for every year, and this rate has been consistently expanding since the 1930's. It is assessed that 11% of landfill volume is comprised of waste plastics.(Norton, 2012)
Degradation is the cycle where in any substance is separating into isolated parts or components. Decay or pulverization of contaminant atoms by the activity of the chemical discharged by microorganisms is known as biodegradation. Any physical or concoction change in polymer are because of ecological factors, for example, light, heat, dampness, synthetic conditions and organic action is named as degradation of plastic(Kale et al., 2015).The natural corruption of polymeric substances is an unpredictable cycle including a few resulting steps instigated by the activity of proteins. Polymer corruption happens under high-impact and anaerobic condition(Devi et al., 2016).biodegradation of plastics relies upon both ecological variables temperature, dampness, oxygen, pH) and the substance structure of the polymer. Biodegradable polymers normally contain ester, amide, or carbonate hydrolysable bonds in the polymer spine. The nearness of these hydrolysable practical gatherings expands the powerlessness to biodegradation. Different components that influence biodegradability are crystallinity, sub-atomic weight, and, on account of copolymers, the copolymer creation.(Vaverková, Adamcová, Kotovicová, Toman, & S, 2014)
There are two gatherings of plastics based on biodegradability, i.e., non-biodegradable plastics and biodegradable plastics. Non-biodegradable plastics: Their atomic weight is high because of the broad redundancy of little monomer units. These plastics are profoundly steady and don't promptly go into the degradation patterns of the biosphere. Non-biodegradable plastics incorporate a significant number of the routinely utilized plastics like PVC, PP, PS, PET, PUR, and PE. Biodegradable plastics: Both bio-based and fossil-based polymers can be remembered for biodegradable plastics relying on the level of biodegradability and microbial assimilation.(Ahmed et al., 2018)
Fungi are the decomposers in the worldwide pattern of life and demise. They are normally there to accomplish the work when anything creature, plant, or even non-living article is fit to be separated again into its sub-atomic constituents. Fungi are found in soil, in new and ocean water, inside the collections of plants and creatures, and going through the air as spores. While they regularly are discovered working along with microbes and a variety of microorganisms, it is fungi that can particularly deal with separating the absolute biggest particles present in nature(Norton, 2012)Fungi are known for their decent variety and amazing capacity to corrupt unpredictable and industrious characteristic materials, for example, lignin, chitin, and microcrystalline cellulose. Bacteria and fungi can develop under naturally focused on conditions, for example, low supplement availability(Atagana & Biotechnology, 2004)the open door for fungi to advance in their essence is progressing. the occupant fungi expanded their mycelial biomass, and that the network moved towards strength by three genera: Graphium, Fusarium, and Penicillium(Norton, 2012). Plastic corrupting organisms were disconnected from an assortment of assets, for example, rhizosphere soil of mangroves, polythene covered in the dirt, marine water, plastic and soil at the dumping destinations(Kale et al., 2015).Microorganisms are associated with the corruption and weakening of both engineered and characteristic polymers. So as to utilize such materials as a carbon and vitality source, microorganisms have built up an extraordinary strategy. Microorganisms, for example, bacteria and fungi are associated with the degradation of plastics.(Devi et al., 2016)
Four methods Mechanical, Chemical, physical and Biochemical are utilized for corruption of plastics Physical and mechanical procedures Leave their hurtful impacts on Environment and life of people, and these strategies additionally taint the earth again in general, Microbial catalysts liable for the degradation different kinds of plastics portray the substrates that use the plastics as carbon and vitality sources and aides in biodegradation. Microbial compounds initiate the pace of biodegradation of plastics successfully without making any damage nature and no hurtful intermediates or side-effects are produced during PHA corruption. Truth be told, 3-hydroxybutyrate is found in all higher creatures as blood plasma. Hence, PHAs have been considered for clinical applications, including long haul controlled medication discharge, careful pins, stitches, and bone and vein replacement(Devi et al., 2016).
Review Of Literature
Plastics are produced using hydrocarbon monomers. They are delivered by artificially altering characteristic substances or are combined from inorganic and natural crude materials. Based on their physical qualities, plastics are generally separated into thermosets, elastomers, and thermoplastics. These gatherings contrast essentially with respect to sub-atomic structure.(Shimao, 2001)
Most of the plastics are thermoplastic; that is, when the plastic is shaped it very well may be warmed and changed more than once. The other gathering is thermosets, which can't be re-dissolved. Manufactured plastics are generally utilized in pressing of items, for example, pharmaceuticals, food, beautifiers, synthetic compounds, and cleansers. The most generally utilized plastics in pressing are PE (LDPE, HDPE, MDPE, and LLDPE), PP, PS, PVC, PU, PET, polybutylene terephthalate, nylons, etc. elastomers also cannot be reshaped by heating.(Kale et al., 2015)
Table no.1 : Characteristics and Applications of Plastics
| No. | Type of Plastic | Molecular Structure | Characteristics and Applications |
| Thermosets | Thermosets are hard and have an exceptionally close fit, expanded sub-atomic structure. Relieving continues during forming, after which it is not, at this point conceivable to shape the material by warming.Further moulding may then just be performed by machining. Thermosets are utilized, for instance, to make light switches.
| ||
| Elastomers | Elastomers additionally have a cross-connected structure, they have a looser work than thermosets, offering ascend to a level of versatility.When moulded, elastomers additionally can't be reshaped by warming. Elastomers are utilized, for instance, to deliver car tires. | ||
| Thermoplastics | Thermoplastics have a straight or stretched sub-atomic structure which decides their quality and warm conduct; they are adaptable at standard temperatures. At approx. 120–180°C, thermoplastics become a pale/fluid mass. The thermoplastics are utilized, for instance, in bundling applications. |
During the 1980s, researchers began to investigate whether plastics could be intended to get vulnerable to microbial assault, making them degradable in a microbial dynamic condition. Biodegradable plastics opened the path for new contemplations of waste administration procedures.(Kaseem, Hamad, & Deri, 2012)
The development of auxiliary homogeneities and arrangement of new utilitarian gatherings likewise happens during polymer degradation(Pospíšil & Nešpůrek, 1997). Depending upon the idea of the causing operators, polymer degradation has been named Thermo degradation, Thermo-oxidativedegradation, Thermal degradation, Photodegradation, UV degradation and oxidation Degradation.(Wackett & Hershberger, 2001)
Figure no.1: Types of plastic degradation
Thermo degradation implies the corruption of polymer by heat vitality. Thermo-oxidative degradation for the most part gets uphold from oxygen of the environment and known as thermo-oxidative degradation The underlying phase of degradation is the cycle of burst in the obligations of macromolecules bringing about radical destinations. Thermaldegradation for the most part includes changes to sub-atomic load of polymer. Photodegradation The degradation that is completed within the sight of light is named as "photo degradation." It is started first by the retention of light vitality by the suitable gathering present in the polymer atom. The light ingestion brings about the scission of the polymer atom at a suitable situation of the chain prompting the transformation to littler sections. In this way, photodegradable polymers require either an in-assembled photograph responsive gathering in the chain or an added substance one. Photodegradation of polymer incorporates UV degradation and oxidation Degradation, the UV light is utilized to degrade the final product. Oxidation, in this cycle heat is utilized to separate the plastic. Numerous engineered polymers are impervious to concoction and physical degradation. Both the thermal and physical strategies for degradation diminish the atomic load of the plastic and permit it to biodegrade.(Kyriako, Briassoulis, & Environment, 2007)
Biodegradation of Natural Plastics by Fungi
Polyhydroxyalkanoates are straight polyesters created in nature by bacterial maturation of sugar and lipids(Williams & Peoples, 1996). By and large, no destructive intermediates or side-effects are created during PHA degradation actually, 3-hydroxybutyrate is found in all higher creatures as blood plasma. A number of oxygen consuming and anaerobic organisms that degrade PHA have been confined from different situations(S. Y. J. B. Lee & bioengineering, 1996). Acidovorax faecilis, Aspergillus fumigates, Comamonas sp., Pseudomonas lemoignei, and Variovorax paradoxusare are among those found in soil, while in initiated ooze Alcaligenes faecalis and Pseudomonas have been detached. Comamonas testosterone has been found in seawater, and Ilyobacter delafieldii is available in the anaerobic slop. Since a microbial domain is required for degradation PHA isn't influenced by dampness alone and is uncertainly steady in air(Luzier, 1992). PHAs have pulled in modern consideration for use in the creation biodegradable and biocompatible thermoplastics(Takaku, Kimoto, Kodaira, Nashimoto, & Takagi, 2006). Past discoveries have revealed a Streptomyces strain, Streptoverticillium kashmeriense AF1, equipped for degrading PHB and PHBV, several vigorous and anaerobic PHB-corrupting microorganisms have been detached from soil and different follows, cavities, and depressions as seen on the gouged surface of PHBV films showing that the debasement was a purposeful impact of a microbial consortium colonizing the film surface, including organisms, microbes, and actinomycetes. Various unpredictable disintegration pits have additionally been seen on the outside of PHA by Comamonas sp.(Shah, Hasan, Hameed, Ahmed, & biodegradation, 2007)
Table no.2: Natural biodegradation plastics
| No | Biodegradable plastics | Applications |
PGA
| Used for subcutaneous structure, intracutaneous closures, abdominal and thoracic surgeries.
| |
PHB
| Manufacturing disposable utensils. Also used medical applications, it can also be used for drug delivery.
| |
PLA
| Packaging and paper coatings, other possible markets include sustained release systems for pesticides and fertilizers, much films, and compost bag.
| |
PCL
| Used in housing applications, drugs encapsulation, act as a scaffold for tissue repair via tissue engineering, in root canal filling etc
| |
PHA
| Used for strutures,surgical mesh, repair patches,slings,cardiovascular patches,orthopedic pins, spinal fusion cages, implant meterials,skin substitutes, wound dressings. etc
| |
HV
| Used in paper and film coatings, therapeutic drug delivery of worm medicine for cattle, and sustained release systems for pharmaceutical drugs and insecticides.
| |
PVOH
| Packaging and bagging applications which dissolve in water to release. Products such as laundry detergent,pesticides,and hospitals washable.
| |
| PVAc | Adhesives, the packaging applications include boxboard manufacture, paper bags, paper liminations,tube winding, and remoisten able label. |
Different Mechanisms and Role of Fungi in Biodegradation of plastics
Microorganisms Such as (fungi) are undeniably fit to the assignment of contaminant decimation since they have catalysts that permit them to utilize ecological
Figure no.2: Different Mechanisms and Role of Fungi in Biodegradation of plastics
contaminants as food and on the grounds that they are little to the point that they can contact contaminants without any problem(Peng et al., 2008). fungi have these breaking down capacities to manage the variety of normally happening aggravates that fill in as potential carbon sources. At the point when a zone is tainted, the capacity to manage the defilement and transform it into a vitality source is chosen for inside the fungi populace and prompts a populace that is better ready to use the contaminant(Fernández-Luqueño et al., 2011) .Fungi have capacity to adjust to changing situations And additionally have had under 100 years in which to advance within the sight of manufactured plastics and numerous different poisons. Capacities that have not been found at this point in growths identifying with the corruption of poisons could be advancing right now in some exceptionally contaminated pocket of soil.Fungi are particularly appropriate to PAH degradation comparative with other bacterial decomposers for a couple of reasons. They can degrade high atomic weight PAHs. They likewise work well in non-watery situations where hydrophobic PAHs amass; Also, they can work in the extremely low-oxygen conditions that happen in intensely PAH polluted zones.a rundown of more than 51 contagious species or species bunches that are fruitful at corrupting diverse PAHs. A wide assortment of fungi have advanced compelling instruments to assault explicit PAHs.(Mai, Schormann, Majcherczyk, Hüttermann, & biotechnology, 2004)
The shellfish mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus, can degrade 0-95% of all PAHs present in soil after 80 days(Steffen, Schubert, Tuomela, Hatakka, & Hofrichter, 2007). This is a wood-spoiling fungi part of a gathering known as white decay organisms. Phanerochaete chrysosporium and laevis. These basidiomycetes have at any rate two pathways. One pathway is the cyctochrome 450 framework, much like the framework in vertebrate livers which separate huge particles into metabolites; in any case, a considerable lot of these metabolites are poisonous themselves. The lignin extracellular corruption pathway is ideal on the grounds that the metabolites are completely separated into carbon dioxide(Peng et al., 2008). Fungi assault plastic polymers too; these arrive in a wide scope of structures as lignin and are followed up on by various organisms’ species for various polymers. This disintegrating capacity is maybe much more noteworthy than PAH decomposition.It was discovered that the white decay basidiomycetes known for lignin corruption explicitly P. ostreatus could adequately separate polyacrylimide. Copolymerization with characteristic polymers, for example, starch or collagen expanded biodegradation. These give an extra carbon source to the growths and may likewise give passages to the organisms to attack the manufactured polymer strains of Fusarium and Hypocrea that could corrupt one cancer-causing high weight PAH, pyrene, just as take-up copper and zinc.(Mai et al., 2004). Fungi have advanced to decay lignin; lignin's variable and enormous structure is fundamentally the same as polycyclic sweet-smelling hydrocarbons, and the catalysts the fungi produce are nonspecific.Fungi must have the option to deal with the high internal heat level inside the body to get by in the cerebrum; a portion of these irresistible organisms have been found in saunas, hot tubs, natural aquifers, and coal squander heaps. These equivalent outrageous conditions, just as other extraordinary conditions, for example, low oxygen, are likewise present in PAH-degraded soils. Fungi have a bewildering potential to tidy up defiled conditions. In the wake of taking a gander at the rundown of organisms that can degrade various Plastics, one could envision that there is a growth out there to corrupt each kind of relentless poison, and everyone just must be found.(Gautam, Bassi, Yanful, & biotechnology, 2007)
Table no.3: Fungi Used for Plastic Degradation
| No. | Type of Plastic Used | Fungi | References |
| Degradable plastic | Phanerochaete chrysosporium | (B. Lee, Pometto, Fratzke, Bailey, & Microbiology, 1991) | |
| Polyurethane | Chaetomium globosum and Aspergillus terreus | (Boubendir, 1992) | |
| Polyurethane | Curvularia senegalensis, Fusarium solani, Aureobasidium pullulans, | (Crabbe et al., 1994) | |
| Disposable plastic films | Aspergillus flavus and Mucor rouxii | (El-Shafei, Abd El-Nasser, Kansoh, Ali, & stability, 1998) | |
| HDPE | Phanerochaete chrysosporium Trametes versicolor | (Iiyoshi, Tsutsumi, & Nishida, 1998) | |
| PVC | Poliporusversicolor, Pleurotus sajor caju, | (Kırbaş, Keskin, Güner, & toxicology, 1999) | |
| Plasticized PVC | Aureobasidium pullulans, Rhodotorula aurantiaca, and Kluyveromyces spp. | (Webb et al., 2000) | |
| Polyethylene | Penicillium simplicissmum | (Yamada-Onodera et al., 2001) | |
| Low density | Penicillium pinophilium and Aspergillus niger
| (Volke‐Sepúlveda, Saucedo‐Castañeda, Gutiérrez‐Rojas, Manzur, & Favela‐Torres, 2002) | |
| Degradable polyethylene | Cladosporium cladosporides | (Bonhomme et al., 2003) | |
| Polyethylene bags | Aspergilllus niger | (Kathiresan, 2003) | |
| LDPE | Fusarium sp | (Shah, Hasan, Hameed, & Akhter, 2009) | |
High density polyethylene (HDPE) | Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae Aspergillus flavus | (Konduri, Koteswarareddy, Rohini Kumar, Venkata Reddy, & Lakshmi Narasu, 2011) | |
| LDPE powder | Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus flavus | (Usha, Sangeetha, & Palaniswamy, 2011) | |
| Polyethylene carries bags | Aspergillus niger | (Aswale & Ade, 2011) | |
| LDPE | Aspergillus oryzae | (Konduri et al., 2011) | |
| Degradable plastic | Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus glaucus | (Priyanka & Archana, 2011) | |
| LDPE powder | Aspergillus versicolor and Aspergillus sp | (Pramila & Ramesh, 2011) | |
| LDPE | Aspergillus sp | (Raaman, Rajitha, Jayshree, & Jegadeesh, 2012) |
Enzymes exist in each living cell and henceforth in all organisms. Compounds are quite certain in their activity on substrates, Fungi produce extracellular catalysts to corrupt lignin, which can't go through the cell dividers of microorganisms. This cycle of corruption is called mineralization, and the finished result is carbon dioxide.(K.-M. Lee, Gimore, Huss, & Environment, 2005). Laccase can help in the oxidation of the hydrocarbon spine of PE. Gel pervasion chromatography (GPC) decide if without cell laccase hatched with PE helps in the decrease of normal sub-atomic weight and normal sub-atomic number of PE by 20% and 15%, respectively.(Sivan, 2011). Laccases are generally present in lignin biodegrading organisms, where they catalyze the oxidation of fragrant mixes. Laccase movement is known to follow up on nonaromatic substrates.(Mayer & Staples, 2002).Lignin and manganese-subordinate peroxidases (LiP and MnP, separately) and laccases are the three fundamental proteins of ligninolytic system. (Hofrichter, Lundell, Hatakka, & Microbiology,2001)
A few strains that are equipped for debasing the PE are Brevibacillus spp., Bacillus spp., where proteases are answerable for corruption of plastics. (Sivan, 2011).Papain and urease are the two proteolytic chemicals found to debase clinical polyester PU. Polymer corrupted by papain was because of the hydrolysis of urethane and urea linkages creating free amine and hydroxyl groups. (Phua, Castillo, Anderson, & Hiltner, 1987). Fungi and manganese peroxidase, incompletely filtered from the strain of Phanerochaete chrysosporium additionally helps in the debasement of high-atomic weight PE under nitrogen and carbon restricted conditions. (Shimao, 2001) The chemicals liable for the debasement of different sorts of plastics portray the substrates that use the plastics as carbon and fuel sources and helps in biodegradation. Microbial compounds actuate the pace of biodegradation of plastics viably without making any mischief the environment. (Devi et al., 2016)
Table no.4: Various enzymes used to degrade plastics
| No. | Enzyme | Microorganism | Plastic | references |
| Glycosidase | A. flavus | PCL | (Tokiwa, Calabia, Ugwu, & Aiba, 2009) | |
| Cutinase | Aspergillus oryzae | PBS | (Maeda et al., 2005) | |
| Catalase, protease | A. niger | PCL | (Tokiwa et al., 2009) | |
| Manganese | phnerochaete | PEL | (Shimao, 2001) | |
| Cutinase | Fusarium | PCL | (Shimao, 2001) | |
| Urease | Trichoderma sp. | polyurethane | (Loredo-Treviño et al., 2011) | |
| Serine hydrolase | Pestalotiopsis microspore Curvularia senegalensis Fusarium solani | PUR | (Russell et al., 2011) |
Biodegradation of Synthetic Plastics by Fungi
The degradation of most manufactured plastics in nature is a moderate cycle that includes ecological variables, trailed by the activities of microorganisms. The essential instrument for the biodegradation of high-sub-atomic weight polymer is the oxidation.(A. C. Albertsson, Barenstedt, & Karlsson, 1994; Cruz‐Pinto, Carvalho, Ferreira, & Physics, 1994)
Table no.5: plastic degradation and its applications.
| No. | Plastic | Applications |
| PET | SOFT DRINK, WATER AND DRESSING bottles, peanut butter, and jam bars. | |
| HDPE | Milk, juice and water bottles, trash and retail bags. | |
| PVC | Juice bottles, cling films,raincoats,visors,shoes soles, garden hoses, and electricity pipes. | |
| LDPE | Frozen food bags, squeezable bottles,flexiable container lids | |
| PP | Bottle caps, drinking straws, medicine bottles, car batteries, disposable syringes. | |
| PS | Packing materials, laboratory ware,dispossible cups,plates,trays,and cutlery. | |
| OTHER OFTEN POLYCARBONATE | Beverage bottles, baby milk bottles, electronic casing |
Polyethylene is one of the manufactured polymers of high hydrophobic level and high-atomic weight. In common structure, it isn't biodegradable. Accordingly, their utilization in the creation of removal or pressing materials causes risky ecological problems( (Krupp, Jewell, & technology, 1992) To make this biodegradable, it requires the adjustment of its crystallinity sub-atomic weight and mechanical properties that are liable for PE obstruction toward degradation(A. C. Albertsson et al., 1994).Biodegradation of PE is known to happen by two components: hydro-biodegradation and Oxo-biodegradation (Bonhomme et al., 2003). These two instruments concur with the alterations because of the two added substances, starch and favourable to oxidant, utilized in the amalgamation of biodegradable PE. Biodegradation of LDPE film was 0.2% weight reduction in 10 years(A.-C. J. E. P. J. Albertsson, 1980).Yamada-Onodera et al. (2001) confined a strain of organism Penicillium simplicissmum YK to biodegrade PE, with no additives.(Yamada-Onodera et al., 2001) The capacity of parasites and Streptomyces strains to assault degradable PE comprising of arranged PE packs containing 6% starch. They secluded eight unique strains of Streptomyces and two parasites Mucor rouxii NRRL 1835 and As. flavus. (El-Shafei et al., 1998)
Polypropylene is a thermoplastic polymer utilized in a wide assortment of utilizations including bundling and naming, materials (e.g., ropes, warm clothing, and covers), writing material, plastic parts, and reusable compartments of different sorts, research center gear, amplifiers, car segments, and polymer banknotes. Most business PP is isotactic and has a middle of the road level of crystallinity between that of LDPE and HDPE. PP is ordinarily extreme and adaptable, particularly when copolymerized with ethylene.(Maier & Calafut, 1998). Polypropylene is subject to fasten debasement from introduction to warmth and UV radiation, for example, that present in sunlight(Morris, 2005).Microbial people group disconnected from soil tests blended in with starch have been fit for corrupting PP (Cacciari et al., 1993). Biodegradation of isotactic PP with no treatment is accounted for with one of the networks assigned as 3S among the four microbial networks (assigned as 1S, 2S, 3S, and 6S) adjusted to develop on starch containing PE got from advancement culture. Pseudomonas chlororaphis, Pseudomonas stuzeri, and Vibrio species were distinguished in the network 3S.(Alariqi, Kumar, Rao, Singh, & Stability, 2006)
Polyvinyl chloride is a solid plastic that opposes scraped spot and synthetic substances and has low dampness ingestion. PVC is utilized in development since it is more compelling than conventional materials, for example, copper, iron, or wood in line and profile applications. It very well may be made gentler and more adaptable by the expansion of plasticizers, Mostly, PVC is utilized in structures for lines and fittings, electrical wire protection, floor covers, and engineered cowhide items. It is additionally used to make shoe soles, inflexible lines, materials, and nursery hoses (Owen, 1984).As indicated by Kirbas et al. (1999), PVC having low-atomic weight can be presented to biodegradation by the utilization of white-decay fungi (Kırbaş et al., 1999). The organism As. fumigatus viably corrupts plasticized PVC. Phanerpchaete chrysosporium was developed on PVC in a mineral salt agar. Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Lentinus tigrinus, As. niger, and Aspergillus sydowii can successfully debase PVC.(Ali, 2011)
Polystyrene
Polystyrene is an engineered polymer that contains a rehashing gathering, likewise viewed as exceptionally steady and less powerless for biodegradation. It is utilized in the creation of dispensable cups, bundling materials, in research facility product, and in certain electronic employments. PS is utilized for its lightweight, firmness, and great warm protection. At the point when it is corrupted by warm or synthetic methods it discharges items, for example, styrene, benzene, toluene, and acrolein (Tsuchii, Suzuki, Takahara, & Chemistry, 1977). Biodegradation analyses of PS, styrene oligomers, and PS copolymers have been had a go at utilizing bacteria (Higashimura et al., 1983), fungi(Milstein et al., 1992) blended culture and catalyst under various conditions. Enzymatic biodegradation of PS polymer was attempted with hydro-quinone peroxidase protein with success (Nakamiya, Ooi, Kinoshita, & bioengineering, 1997). The protein was separated from lignin decolorizing bacterium Azotobacter beijerinckii HM121 and utilized in a two-stage (watery and dissolvable) system. (Devi et al., 2016)
Polyurethane is usually used as a constituent material in numerous items including furniture, covering, development materials, strands, and paints.(Saunders & Frisch, 1964). Primarily, PUR is the buildup result of polyisocyanate and polyoli (Howard, Norton, & Burks, 2012).four types of organisms Curvularia senegalensis, Fusarium solani, Aureobasidium pullulans, and Cladosporium sp. were gotten from soil and found to debase ester-based PU.(Shah, Hasan, Akhter, Hameed, & Ahmed, 2008). Pathirana and Seal (1985) detailed that some polyester-PUR debasing organisms produce extracellular esterases, proteases, or ureases within the sight of PUR. Esterase action has been resolved in the way of life supernatant of growth, for example, C. Senegalensis.(Pathirana & Seal, 1985)
It is obvious that without plastic we can’t meet our day-to-day life needs, but in view of its detrimental effect it is required to develop competent process for its safe disposal and explore alternative material like starch based and blended plastic. This knowledge is useful because currently, the annual worldwide use of plastic materials is gradually increasing. In the natural environment, different kinds of microorganisms play an important role in various steps involved in the degradation of plastics Various plastic-degrading methods are available but the cheapest, eco-friendly acceptable method is degradation using microbes. The microbe releases the extracellular enzymes to degrade the plastic but the detailed characterization of these enzymes is still needed to be carried out. Utilization of molecular techniques to detect specific groups of microorganisms involved in the degradation process will allow a better understanding of the organization of the microbial community involved in the attack of materials.
Future prospects
To tackle the issues identified with the removal of plastic waste created from different sources, the most imaginative and earth safe path is to utilize biodegradable plastics in specific applications like bundling, horticulture, and wellbeing industry. Bio-and fossil-based biodegradable polymers, whenever used, are effectively corrupted in the earth, cells, or under enhanced modern facilities.The interest for nature well-disposed polymers is expanding consistently in specific applications. Use of these materials ought to be engaged in future particularly for the assembling of bundling stuff, the food thing bundling, and expendable clinical things. It is additionally useful to utilize biodegradable plastics in the earth as farming movies, fishery material (fishing nets), bio-absorbable materials in therapeutics, careful systems, and sterile merchandise. Additionally, biodegradable plastics ought to be applied where dissemination into nature is unavoidable or when it is trying to isolate the trash. Then again, appropriate game plan of their waste and littering control is fundamental to exploit such polymers in the community. Next-age bio-based biodegradable plastics will focus on building a more reasonable society for explicit applications. Further, these plastics ought to be biodegraded and reused in a reasonable manner to make them re-utilize conceivable
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Dr. Katarzyna Byczkowska My testimonial covering: "The peer review process is quick and effective. The support from the editorial office is very professional and friendly. Quality of the Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on cardiology that is useful for other professionals in the field.
Thank you most sincerely, with regard to the support you have given in relation to the reviewing process and the processing of my article entitled "Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of The Prostate Gland: A Review and Update" for publication in your esteemed Journal, Journal of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics". The editorial team has been very supportive.
Testimony of Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology: work with your Reviews has been a educational and constructive experience. The editorial office were very helpful and supportive. It was a pleasure to contribute to your Journal.
Dr. Bernard Terkimbi Utoo, I am happy to publish my scientific work in Journal of Women Health Care and Issues (JWHCI). The manuscript submission was seamless and peer review process was top notch. I was amazed that 4 reviewers worked on the manuscript which made it a highly technical, standard and excellent quality paper. I appreciate the format and consideration for the APC as well as the speed of publication. It is my pleasure to continue with this scientific relationship with the esteem JWHCI.
This is an acknowledgment for peer reviewers, editorial board of Journal of Clinical Research and Reports. They show a lot of consideration for us as publishers for our research article “Evaluation of the different factors associated with side effects of COVID-19 vaccination on medical students, Mutah university, Al-Karak, Jordan”, in a very professional and easy way. This journal is one of outstanding medical journal.
Dear Hao Jiang, to Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing We greatly appreciate the efficient, professional and rapid processing of our paper by your team. If there is anything else we should do, please do not hesitate to let us know. On behalf of my co-authors, we would like to express our great appreciation to editor and reviewers.
As an author who has recently published in the journal "Brain and Neurological Disorders". I am delighted to provide a testimonial on the peer review process, editorial office support, and the overall quality of the journal. The peer review process at Brain and Neurological Disorders is rigorous and meticulous, ensuring that only high-quality, evidence-based research is published. The reviewers are experts in their fields, and their comments and suggestions were constructive and helped improve the quality of my manuscript. The review process was timely and efficient, with clear communication from the editorial office at each stage. The support from the editorial office was exceptional throughout the entire process. The editorial staff was responsive, professional, and always willing to help. They provided valuable guidance on formatting, structure, and ethical considerations, making the submission process seamless. Moreover, they kept me informed about the status of my manuscript and provided timely updates, which made the process less stressful. The journal Brain and Neurological Disorders is of the highest quality, with a strong focus on publishing cutting-edge research in the field of neurology. The articles published in this journal are well-researched, rigorously peer-reviewed, and written by experts in the field. The journal maintains high standards, ensuring that readers are provided with the most up-to-date and reliable information on brain and neurological disorders. In conclusion, I had a wonderful experience publishing in Brain and Neurological Disorders. The peer review process was thorough, the editorial office provided exceptional support, and the journal's quality is second to none. I would highly recommend this journal to any researcher working in the field of neurology and brain disorders.
Dear Agrippa Hilda, Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery, Editorial Coordinator, I trust this message finds you well. I want to extend my appreciation for considering my article for publication in your esteemed journal. I am pleased to provide a testimonial regarding the peer review process and the support received from your editorial office. The peer review process for my paper was carried out in a highly professional and thorough manner. The feedback and comments provided by the authors were constructive and very useful in improving the quality of the manuscript. This rigorous assessment process undoubtedly contributes to the high standards maintained by your journal.
International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. I strongly recommend to consider submitting your work to this high-quality journal. The support and availability of the Editorial staff is outstanding and the review process was both efficient and rigorous.
Thank you very much for publishing my Research Article titled “Comparing Treatment Outcome Of Allergic Rhinitis Patients After Using Fluticasone Nasal Spray And Nasal Douching" in the Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology. As Medical Professionals we are immensely benefited from study of various informative Articles and Papers published in this high quality Journal. I look forward to enriching my knowledge by regular study of the Journal and contribute my future work in the field of ENT through the Journal for use by the medical fraternity. The support from the Editorial office was excellent and very prompt. I also welcome the comments received from the readers of my Research Article.
Dear Erica Kelsey, Editorial Coordinator of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics Our team is very satisfied with the processing of our paper by your journal. That was fast, efficient, rigorous, but without unnecessary complications. We appreciated the very short time between the submission of the paper and its publication on line on your site.
I am very glad to say that the peer review process is very successful and fast and support from the Editorial Office. Therefore, I would like to continue our scientific relationship for a long time. And I especially thank you for your kindly attention towards my article. Have a good day!
"We recently published an article entitled “Influence of beta-Cyclodextrins upon the Degradation of Carbofuran Derivatives under Alkaline Conditions" in the Journal of “Pesticides and Biofertilizers” to show that the cyclodextrins protect the carbamates increasing their half-life time in the presence of basic conditions This will be very helpful to understand carbofuran behaviour in the analytical, agro-environmental and food areas. We greatly appreciated the interaction with the editor and the editorial team; we were particularly well accompanied during the course of the revision process, since all various steps towards publication were short and without delay".
I would like to express my gratitude towards you process of article review and submission. I found this to be very fair and expedient. Your follow up has been excellent. I have many publications in national and international journal and your process has been one of the best so far. Keep up the great work.
We are grateful for this opportunity to provide a glowing recommendation to the Journal of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. We found that the editorial team were very supportive, helpful, kept us abreast of timelines and over all very professional in nature. The peer review process was rigorous, efficient and constructive that really enhanced our article submission. The experience with this journal remains one of our best ever and we look forward to providing future submissions in the near future.
I am very pleased to serve as EBM of the journal, I hope many years of my experience in stem cells can help the journal from one way or another. As we know, stem cells hold great potential for regenerative medicine, which are mostly used to promote the repair response of diseased, dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives. I think Stem Cell Research and Therapeutics International is a great platform to publish and share the understanding towards the biology and translational or clinical application of stem cells.
I would like to give my testimony in the support I have got by the peer review process and to support the editorial office where they were of asset to support young author like me to be encouraged to publish their work in your respected journal and globalize and share knowledge across the globe. I really give my great gratitude to your journal and the peer review including the editorial office.
I am delighted to publish our manuscript entitled "A Perspective on Cocaine Induced Stroke - Its Mechanisms and Management" in the Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. The peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal are excellent. The manuscripts published are of high quality and of excellent scientific value. I recommend this journal very much to colleagues.
Dr.Tania Muñoz, My experience as researcher and author of a review article in The Journal Clinical Cardiology and Interventions has been very enriching and stimulating. The editorial team is excellent, performs its work with absolute responsibility and delivery. They are proactive, dynamic and receptive to all proposals. Supporting at all times the vast universe of authors who choose them as an option for publication. The team of review specialists, members of the editorial board, are brilliant professionals, with remarkable performance in medical research and scientific methodology. Together they form a frontline team that consolidates the JCCI as a magnificent option for the publication and review of high-level medical articles and broad collective interest. I am honored to be able to share my review article and open to receive all your comments.
“The peer review process of JPMHC is quick and effective. Authors are benefited by good and professional reviewers with huge experience in the field of psychology and mental health. The support from the editorial office is very professional. People to contact to are friendly and happy to help and assist any query authors might have. Quality of the Journal is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on mental health that is useful for other professionals in the field”.
Dear editorial department: On behalf of our team, I hereby certify the reliability and superiority of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews in the peer review process, editorial support, and journal quality. Firstly, the peer review process of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is rigorous, fair, transparent, fast, and of high quality. The editorial department invites experts from relevant fields as anonymous reviewers to review all submitted manuscripts. These experts have rich academic backgrounds and experience, and can accurately evaluate the academic quality, originality, and suitability of manuscripts. The editorial department is committed to ensuring the rigor of the peer review process, while also making every effort to ensure a fast review cycle to meet the needs of authors and the academic community. Secondly, the editorial team of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is composed of a group of senior scholars and professionals with rich experience and professional knowledge in related fields. The editorial department is committed to assisting authors in improving their manuscripts, ensuring their academic accuracy, clarity, and completeness. Editors actively collaborate with authors, providing useful suggestions and feedback to promote the improvement and development of the manuscript. We believe that the support of the editorial department is one of the key factors in ensuring the quality of the journal. Finally, the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is renowned for its high- quality articles and strict academic standards. The editorial department is committed to publishing innovative and academically valuable research results to promote the development and progress of related fields. The International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is reasonably priced and ensures excellent service and quality ratio, allowing authors to obtain high-level academic publishing opportunities in an affordable manner. I hereby solemnly declare that the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews has a high level of credibility and superiority in terms of peer review process, editorial support, reasonable fees, and journal quality. Sincerely, Rui Tao.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions I testity the covering of the peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, we deeply appreciate the interest shown in our work and its publication. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you. The peer review process, as well as the support provided by the editorial office, have been exceptional, and the quality of the journal is very high, which was a determining factor in our decision to publish with you.
The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews journal clinically in the future time.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude for the trust placed in our team for the publication in your journal. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you on this project. I am pleased to inform you that both the peer review process and the attention from the editorial coordination have been excellent. Your team has worked with dedication and professionalism to ensure that your publication meets the highest standards of quality. We are confident that this collaboration will result in mutual success, and we are eager to see the fruits of this shared effort.
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I hope this message finds you well. I want to express my utmost gratitude for your excellent work and for the dedication and speed in the publication process of my article titled "Navigating Innovation: Qualitative Insights on Using Technology for Health Education in Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients." I am very satisfied with the peer review process, the support from the editorial office, and the quality of the journal. I hope we can maintain our scientific relationship in the long term.
Dear Monica Gissare, - Editorial Coordinator of Nutrition and Food Processing. ¨My testimony with you is truly professional, with a positive response regarding the follow-up of the article and its review, you took into account my qualities and the importance of the topic¨.
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, The review process for the article “The Handling of Anti-aggregants and Anticoagulants in the Oncologic Heart Patient Submitted to Surgery” was extremely rigorous and detailed. From the initial submission to the final acceptance, the editorial team at the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” demonstrated a high level of professionalism and dedication. The reviewers provided constructive and detailed feedback, which was essential for improving the quality of our work. Communication was always clear and efficient, ensuring that all our questions were promptly addressed. The quality of the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” is undeniable. It is a peer-reviewed, open-access publication dedicated exclusively to disseminating high-quality research in the field of clinical cardiology and cardiovascular interventions. The journal's impact factor is currently under evaluation, and it is indexed in reputable databases, which further reinforces its credibility and relevance in the scientific field. I highly recommend this journal to researchers looking for a reputable platform to publish their studies.
Dear Editorial Coordinator of the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing! "I would like to thank the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing for including and publishing my article. The peer review process was very quick, movement and precise. The Editorial Board has done an extremely conscientious job with much help, valuable comments and advices. I find the journal very valuable from a professional point of view, thank you very much for allowing me to be part of it and I would like to participate in the future!”
Dealing with The Journal of Neurology and Neurological Surgery was very smooth and comprehensive. The office staff took time to address my needs and the response from editors and the office was prompt and fair. I certainly hope to publish with this journal again.Their professionalism is apparent and more than satisfactory. Susan Weiner
My Testimonial Covering as fellowing: Lin-Show Chin. The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
My experience publishing in Psychology and Mental Health Care was exceptional. The peer review process was rigorous and constructive, with reviewers providing valuable insights that helped enhance the quality of our work. The editorial team was highly supportive and responsive, making the submission process smooth and efficient. The journal's commitment to high standards and academic rigor makes it a respected platform for quality research. I am grateful for the opportunity to publish in such a reputable journal.
My experience publishing in International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews was exceptional. I Come forth to Provide a Testimonial Covering the Peer Review Process and the editorial office for the Professional and Impartial Evaluation of the Manuscript.
I would like to offer my testimony in the support. I have received through the peer review process and support the editorial office where they are to support young authors like me, encourage them to publish their work in your esteemed journals, and globalize and share knowledge globally. I really appreciate your journal, peer review, and editorial office.
Dear Agrippa Hilda- Editorial Coordinator of Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery, "The peer review process was very quick and of high quality, which can also be seen in the articles in the journal. The collaboration with the editorial office was very good."
I would like to express my sincere gratitude for the support and efficiency provided by the editorial office throughout the publication process of my article, “Delayed Vulvar Metastases from Rectal Carcinoma: A Case Report.” I greatly appreciate the assistance and guidance I received from your team, which made the entire process smooth and efficient. The peer review process was thorough and constructive, contributing to the overall quality of the final article. I am very grateful for the high level of professionalism and commitment shown by the editorial staff, and I look forward to maintaining a long-term collaboration with the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
To Dear Erin Aust, I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation for the opportunity to have my work published in this esteemed journal. The entire publication process was smooth and well-organized, and I am extremely satisfied with the final result. The Editorial Team demonstrated the utmost professionalism, providing prompt and insightful feedback throughout the review process. Their clear communication and constructive suggestions were invaluable in enhancing my manuscript, and their meticulous attention to detail and dedication to quality are truly commendable. Additionally, the support from the Editorial Office was exceptional. From the initial submission to the final publication, I was guided through every step of the process with great care and professionalism. The team's responsiveness and assistance made the entire experience both easy and stress-free. I am also deeply impressed by the quality and reputation of the journal. It is an honor to have my research featured in such a respected publication, and I am confident that it will make a meaningful contribution to the field.
"I am grateful for the opportunity of contributing to [International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews] and for the rigorous review process that enhances the quality of research published in your esteemed journal. I sincerely appreciate the time and effort of your team who have dedicatedly helped me in improvising changes and modifying my manuscript. The insightful comments and constructive feedback provided have been invaluable in refining and strengthening my work".
I thank the ‘Journal of Clinical Research and Reports’ for accepting this article for publication. This is a rigorously peer reviewed journal which is on all major global scientific data bases. I note the review process was prompt, thorough and professionally critical. It gave us an insight into a number of important scientific/statistical issues. The review prompted us to review the relevant literature again and look at the limitations of the study. The peer reviewers were open, clear in the instructions and the editorial team was very prompt in their communication. This journal certainly publishes quality research articles. I would recommend the journal for any future publications.
Dear Jessica Magne, with gratitude for the joint work. Fast process of receiving and processing the submitted scientific materials in “Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions”. High level of competence of the editors with clear and correct recommendations and ideas for enriching the article.
We found the peer review process quick and positive in its input. The support from the editorial officer has been very agile, always with the intention of improving the article and taking into account our subsequent corrections.
My article, titled 'No Way Out of the Smartphone Epidemic Without Considering the Insights of Brain Research,' has been republished in the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. The review process was seamless and professional, with the editors being both friendly and supportive. I am deeply grateful for their efforts.
To Dear Erin Aust – Editorial Coordinator of Journal of General Medicine and Clinical Practice! I declare that I am absolutely satisfied with your work carried out with great competence in following the manuscript during the various stages from its receipt, during the revision process to the final acceptance for publication. Thank Prof. Elvira Farina
Dear Jessica, and the super professional team of the ‘Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions’ I am sincerely grateful to the coordinated work of the journal team for the no problem with the submission of my manuscript: “Cardiometabolic Disorders in A Pregnant Woman with Severe Preeclampsia on the Background of Morbid Obesity (Case Report).” The review process by 5 experts was fast, and the comments were professional, which made it more specific and academic, and the process of publication and presentation of the article was excellent. I recommend that my colleagues publish articles in this journal, and I am interested in further scientific cooperation. Sincerely and best wishes, Dr. Oleg Golyanovskiy.
Dear Ashley Rosa, Editorial Coordinator of the journal - Psychology and Mental Health Care. " The process of obtaining publication of my article in the Psychology and Mental Health Journal was positive in all areas. The peer review process resulted in a number of valuable comments, the editorial process was collaborative and timely, and the quality of this journal has been quickly noticed, resulting in alternative journals contacting me to publish with them." Warm regards, Susan Anne Smith, PhD. Australian Breastfeeding Association.
Dear Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator, Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, Auctores Publishing LLC. I appreciate the journal (JCCI) editorial office support, the entire team leads were always ready to help, not only on technical front but also on thorough process. Also, I should thank dear reviewers’ attention to detail and creative approach to teach me and bring new insights by their comments. Surely, more discussions and introduction of other hemodynamic devices would provide better prevention and management of shock states. Your efforts and dedication in presenting educational materials in this journal are commendable. Best wishes from, Farahnaz Fallahian.
Dear Maria Emerson, Editorial Coordinator, International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews, Auctores Publishing LLC. I am delighted to have published our manuscript, "Acute Colonic Pseudo-Obstruction (ACPO): A rare but serious complication following caesarean section." I want to thank the editorial team, especially Maria Emerson, for their prompt review of the manuscript, quick responses to queries, and overall support. Yours sincerely Dr. Victor Olagundoye.
Dear Ashley Rosa, Editorial Coordinator, International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. Many thanks for publishing this manuscript after I lost confidence the editors were most helpful, more than other journals Best wishes from, Susan Anne Smith, PhD. Australian Breastfeeding Association.
Dear Agrippa Hilda, Editorial Coordinator, Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. The entire process including article submission, review, revision, and publication was extremely easy. The journal editor was prompt and helpful, and the reviewers contributed to the quality of the paper. Thank you so much! Eric Nussbaum, MD
